Spanish Texas: Exploration, Colonization, and Conflict (1690-1779)

Early Spanish Expeditions and the Vision for Texas (1690-1691)

• The Expedition of 1690: On April $2, 1690$, an expedition consisting of $110$ Spanish soldiers and four Franciscan priests crossed the Rio Grande. Led by Governor Alonso de Leon of Coahuila and Father Damian Massanet, the goal was to establish a permanent Spanish presence in East Texas to counter French incursions, specifically following Robert S. Weddle's description of the French as a "French Thorn" in New Spain.

• Conflict of Visions: From the outset, two competing philosophies emerged regarding the colonization of Texas:

  • Alonso de Leon's Practical Approach: He argued that the Indians would only accept religious change if supported by a strong military presence. He proposed a line of four presidios (fortified supply lines) on the Rio Grande, the Frio River, the Guadalupe River, and near the missions to protect and defend the area.

  • Father Massanet's Spiritual Approach: He believed Indians should be won over through persuasion and "Christian love" rather than force. He opposed a heavy military presence.

• Outcome and Precedent: Authorities in Mexico City sided with Massanet, primarily due to the lower cost, setting a precedent for "peso-pinching" that would hamper Spanish efforts for ninety years. However, they did send $110$ soldiers for the initial 1690 trip to address the French threat.

• Founding of Mission San Francisco de los Tejas: The expedition reached the ruins of La Salle's fort on April $26, 1690$. Massanet personally burned the remaining structures. They then moved to the Neches River to the town of the Hasinais (Caddo). De Leon was impressed by their "clean houses" and agricultural abundance. Mission San Francisco de los Tejas was established, and the first mass was celebrated on June $1, 1690$.

The Failure of the First Governor and Initial Missions (1691-1694)

• Domingo Teran de los Rios: In January $1691$, the viceroy appointed Teran as the first governor of Texas. He led an expedition of $50$ soldiers and $10$ priests, driving over $1,000$ horses and various livestock to resupply the missions.

• The 1691 Expedition's Struggles:

  • Teran was arrogant and viewed his assignment as beneath him. He frequently clashed with Massanet, who held authority over mission matters.

  • Supply failures: Teran waited for ships at Matagorda Bay that arrived only after his party had left.

  • Environment: Heat, drought, ticks, and chiggers plagued the men; subsequent explorations in late $1691$ involved freezing rain and a foot of snow.

• Interaction with the Hasinais: The relationship soured because the Spanish refused to provide weapons (which the Indians wanted for protection) but demanded cultural and religious submission. Tensions spiked when a priest died, followed by an epidemic that killed $300$ to $400$ Indians.

• Abandonment: By $1693$, crops failed and another epidemic broke out. Massanet, now disillusioned, suggested using force to convert the natives, but the viceroy refused to fund a presidio without a French threat. On October $25, 1693$, the Spaniards buried their bells and cannons, burned the mission, and fled, returning to Coahuila in February $1694$.

The Return of French Influence and Saint-Denis (1713-1716)

• Presidio San Juan Bautista del Rio Grande: Established in $1703$ on the south side of the river (near modern Eagle Pass), it became the "gateway" to Spanish Texas.

• Father Francisco Hidalgo's Strategy: Failing to get Spanish support for new missions, Hidalgo wrote to the French Governor of Louisiana, Antoine Laumet, Sieur de Cadillac, in $1711$, inviting the French to establish missions for the Caddo. This was a calculated move to alarm the Spanish government into action.

• Louis Juchereau de Saint-Denis: Cadillac sent Saint-Denis, an experienced trader, to establish trade and ostensibly assist Hidalgo. In $1714$, Saint-Denis arrived at San Juan Bautista. While under house arrest, he courted and later married Manuela Sanchez, the step-granddaughter of Commandant Diego Ramon.

• The 1716 Ramon Expedition: The Spanish government, alarmed by the French presence, sent Captain Domingo Ramon to reoccupy East Texas. Saint-Denis, having sworn loyalty to Spain, served as second-in-command. The expedition included $26$ soldiers, $9$ priests, and the first recorded Spanish women in Texas. They established four missions in $1716$, including one at Nacogdoches, and two more in $1717$ (one in present-day Louisiana called San Miguel de los Adaes).

The Founding of San Antonio and the Aguayo Expedition (1718-1722)

• Birth of San Antonio (1718): Governor Martin de Alarcon was directed to create a "halfway post" between the Rio Grande and East Texas.

  • May $1, 1718$: Founded Mission San Antonio de Valero (later known as the Alamo).

  • Presidio San Antonio de Bexar and Villa de Bexar were established nearby.

• The "Chicken War" (1719): During a brief war between Spain and France, seven French soldiers from Natchitoches captured the mission at Los Adaes. A fleeing lay brother spread rumors of a large French invasion, causing the Spanish to abandon East Texas and retreat to San Antonio.

• The Marques de San Miguel de Aguayo: A wealthy nobleman who funded his own expedition in $1721$ to reclaim East Texas. He led $500$ men and thousands of livestock ($2,800$ horses, $4,800$ cattle, $6,400$ sheep/goats).

• Aguayo's Impact:

  • Reestablished the six East Texas missions and built a new presidio at Los Adaes (which became the capital of Texas until $1772$).

  • Established the boundary of Spanish Texas at the Rio Hondo (near Natchitoches).

  • Established Mission San Jose y San Miguel de Aguayo in San Antonio ($1720$), often called the most beautiful mission in Texas.

  • Relocated the La Bahia mission and presidio to the site of La Salle's old fort (later moved to Goliad).

Life in the Missions and Economic Differences (1720s-1740s)

• Mission Success and Failure:

  • East Texas: Failed to convert Hasinais, who stayed only for gifts.

  • San Antonio: Success with the Coahuiltecans, who sought the missions for food and protection. Indians learned skills like cloth making, carpentry, and irrigation.

• The Birth of Ranching: The livestock brought by Teran ($1691$) and Aguayo ($1721$) started the first mission herds. Within $30$ years, thousands of livestock managed by Indian "vaqueros" filled the pastures between San Antonio and Goliad.

• French vs. Spanish Indian Policy:

  • Spanish: Provided gifts (cloth, tools) but no weapons; demanded religious conversion; prohibited trade.

  • French: Focused on trade for furs, horses, and slaves; provided firearms, which militarized Indian life and allowed groups like the Caddo and Wichita to go on the offensive.

The Arrival of the Comanches and Apache Warfare

• Pedro de Rivera Inspection (1727): Rivera inspected the frontier and recommended closing the East Texas presidio to save money. This led to the relocation of three East Texas missions to San Antonio in $1731$.

• Canary Islanders (1731): $55$ settlers (Islenos) arrived to form a civilian colony. They established the first municipal government (San Fernando de Bexar) but often clashed with older settlers and missions.

• The Comanche Threat: The Comanches, a branch of the Northern Shoshones, arrived in Texas in the $1720s$.

  • They were nomadic buffalo hunters and master horsemen.

  • Their arrival pushed the Lipan Apaches south, leading the Apaches to raid San Antonio for horses and supplies.

  • Comanche society was organized into kinship bands with "peace chiefs," but war leadership was based on individual initiative and bravery ("counting coup").

Failed Expansion Initiatives (1740s-1750s)

• San Gabriel Missions (1746-1755): Three missions were established for the Tonkawas, Cocos, and Deadose. The project failed due to Captain Felipe de Rabago y Teran, who seduced a soldier's wife, eventually leading to the murder of the husband (Juan Jose Ceballos) and a priest.

• San Saba Mission (1757-1758): Established for the Lipan Apaches, who used the mission as a shield against the Comanches. In March $1758$, roughly $2,000$ "Nortenos" (Comanches, Wichitas, etc.) attacked and destroyed the mission, killing two priests and five others.

• Battle of the Red River (1759): Colonel Diego Ortiz Parrilla led a retaliatory force of $500$ men but was decisively defeated by the Taovaya Wichitas at a massive fortified village flying a French flag. This was the worst defeat for Spanish arms in Texas.

• El Orcoquisac (1756): A mission/presidio on the lower Trinity meant to stop French trade. It was abandoned due to floods, mosquitoes, and poor water.

Successful Growth in Nuevo Santander

• Jose de Escandon: A brilliant colonizer who explored and settled the coastal region from Tampico to Matagorda Bay.

• Villa Laredo (1755): Founded by Tomas Sanchez on the Rio Grande, it became a major border town.

• South Texas Ranching: Mexican ranchers like Don Jose Vazquez Borrego (Hacienda Nuestra Senora de los Dolores) moved herds north of the Rio Grande, establishing a ranching economy based on servants and herdsmen.

The Rubi Report and Policy Shifts (1762-1779)

• The Treaty of Paris (1763): France ceded Louisiana to Spain. Texas was no longer a buffer province, which lowered its strategic value.

• Marques de Rubi Inspection (1767): Rubi traveled $7,500$ miles and found most Texas outposts in "appalling" condition. He recommended:

  • Abandoning East Texas and San Saba.

  • Designating San Antonio and La Bahia as the only remaining outposts in Texas.

  • Waging a "war of extermination" against the Apaches while befriending the Comanches.

• Git Antonio Ybarbo and Nacogdoches: When East Texans were forced to relocate to San Antonio in $1773$, they suffered under Ybarbo's leadership. In $1779$, without permission, they returned east to found Nacogdoches, which the government eventually recognized.

• Athanase de Mezieres: A French-born diplomat who served Spain by using the "French Policy" of giving annual gifts to Indians (Caddo, Wichita, Tonkawa) to ensure peace and exclude the Apaches from trade.

• Condition in 1779: Teodoro de Croix, head of the Interior Provinces, described Texas as a "villa without order" and an "immense desert country" with a population of only $4,000$.