Study Notes for Exploring Psychology by David G. Myers & C. Nathan DeWall | learning pt2

Definition of Operant Conditioning:
- A voluntary type of learning in which behavior is associated with consequences.
- Also referred to as response-outcome learning.

Operant Behavior:
- Behavior that operates on the environment to produce a consequence that, in turn, influences future behavior.
- Behaviors are strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Example 1:
- Behavior: You spend more time studying for a test.
- Consequence: Your exam score increases.
- Future Behavior: You study more in the future.
Example 2:
- Behavior: A child disobeys her parents.
- Consequence: Child given a timeout.
- Future Behavior: Child disobeys parents less in the future.

Definition:
- Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes will be more likely to occur.
- Behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes will be less likely to occur.

B.F. Skinner:
- Considered modern behaviorism’s most influential figure.
- Expanded on Edward L. Thorndike’s law of effect.
- Developed behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavior control, including the Skinner box (operant chamber).

Definition of Shaping:
- The process of gradually guiding behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
- Involves rewarding successive approximations (responses that are increasingly closer to the final desired behavior) and ignoring all other responses.

Definition of Reinforcement:
- Any outcome that strengthens the behavior it follows.
- An outcome that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be performed again in the future.

Primary Reinforcers:
- Unlearned, innately reinforcing stimuli that satisfy biological needs.
- Examples: food, water.
Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcers:
- Stimuli that gain their power through association with primary reinforcers.
- Examples: rewards, money, praise.

Immediate Reinforcers:
- Occur immediately after a behavior.
Delayed Reinforcers:
- Involves a time delay between the desired response and delivery of the reward.

Positive Reinforcement:
- Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers.
- Example: Petting a dog that comes when called; paying someone for work done.
Negative Reinforcement:
- Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli.
- Example: Taking painkillers to end pain; fastening a seatbelt to end loud beeping.

Definition of Punishment:
- Administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable to decrease the frequency of a behavior.
- Makes the behavior less likely to happen in the future.
Positive Punishment:
- Presents a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited.
- Example: Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding.
Negative Punishment:
- Removes a desired stimulus after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited.
- Example: Take away a misbehaving teen’s driving privileges; stop sharing food with a rude roommate.

At School:
- Use of grades, detention, or earning parties.
In Sports:
- Use of playing time or corrective drills.
In Computer Programs:
- Gamification (points, badges, leveling up).
At Work:
- Bonuses, promotions, or grunt work.
In Parenting:
- Use of praise, treats, allowance, time-outs, or loss of privileges.

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule:
- Reinforcement occurs every time the desired response occurs.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule:
- Reinforcing a response only part of the time.
- Results in slower acquisition of a response but greater resistance to extinction.
Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules:
- Fixed-ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after every nth behavior (e.g., buy 10 coffees, get 1 free).
- Variable-ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of behaviors (e.g., slot machines, fishing).
- Fixed-interval Schedule: Reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time (e.g., Tuesday discount prices).
- Variable-interval Schedule: Reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time (e.g., checking phone for messages).

Acquisition:
- Initial learning phase when stimulus-response associations are first formed and strengthened.
Extinction:
- Gradual weakening of learned responses when reinforcement or stimulus pairing stops.
Spontaneous Recovery:
- Temporary return of previously extinguished responses after a rest period.
Generalization:
- Responding to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus or situation.
Discrimination:
- Learning to respond only to specific stimuli while ignoring similar ones.

Basic idea:
- Classical: Learning associations between events we do not control.
- Operant: Learning associations between our behavior and its consequences.
Response:
- Classical: Involuntary, automatic.
- Operant: Voluntary, operates on the environment.
Extinction:
- Classical: CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone.
- Operant: Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.
Generalization:
- Classical: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
- Operant: Responses learned in one situation occurring in other, similar situations.
Discrimination:
- Classical: Learning to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US.
- Operant: Learning that some responses, but not others, will be reinforced.

Operant conditioning links voluntary behaviors with consequences that shape future actions.
Reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases behavior.
Positive means adding something; negative means removing something – not good versus bad.
Reinforcement schedules determine behavior patterns.

How do social media apps use variable-ratio schedules to keep you scrolling? What specific features act as reinforcers?