Suggestibility of Children's Memory Study Notes
THE SUGGESTIBILITY OF CHILDREN'S MEMORY
Maggie Bruck, Stephen J. Ceci
KEY WORDS
Interviewer bias
Eyewitness testimony
Development
ABSTRACT
A review of developmental suggestibility is presented, highlighting age-related differences in suggestibility, particularly among preschool children, who are shown to be particularly susceptible to misleading suggestions.
Criticisms of older studies, which suggested pronounced differences in suggestibility, are addressed by newer studies that continue to support the conclusion of preschool children's vulnerability to suggestive influences, including bodily experiences and emotional events.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Earlier Studies of Children's Suggestibility
Children's Responses to Misleading Questions about Salient Events
Children's Responses in Suggestive Interviews
The Effect of Suggestive Interviews on Children's Credibility
Children's False Reports: Compliance or False Belief?
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
INTRODUCTION
1980s: Significant change in awareness regarding child violence and abuse.
Increased recognition led to revisions in criminal procedures to aid child victims.
Changes included allowing children to provide uncorroborated testimony in sexual abuse cases and the elimination of the competency requirement for child witnesses.
Resulted in an increased number of child testimonies in legal cases, estimated at over 13,000 annually in sexual abuse cases (Ceci & Bruck 1993).
Raised questions about the reliability of children's reports, especially given sensational cases with fantastic claims made by young children.
Past legal outcomes often were based on the belief that children do not lie about sexual abuse, leading to convictions despite a lack of corroborative evidence.
The last decade has seen an increase in research focused on children's suggestibility, particularly as it relates to the accuracy of testimonies influenced by adult suggestions.
Earlier Studies of Children's Suggestibility
Earlier suggestibility studies typically involved misleading questions about neutral events, indicating younger children were more suggestible than older children.
However, the applicability of older data was limited due to:
Age range studied: limited inclusion of preschoolers, despite their disproportionate victimization in sexual abuse cases.
Neutral events examined lacked personal relevance.
Questioning methods deviated from actual forensic investigations which often involve more sensitive questioning about experiences of personal significance.
Newer studies have addressed these limitations:
Increased inclusion of preschool children.
Focus on events that hold personal significance and involve bodily experiences.
Expansion of suggestive techniques assessed beyond misleading questions to include actual forensic and therapeutic interview techniques.
A central aim has been the ethical testing of children's recall regarding potentially traumatic events.
Children's Responses to Misleading Questions about Salient Events
Studies focused on responses to misleading questions around events suggestive of sexual abuse show significant results:
Children (four- and seven-year-olds) who participated in an event were less accurate than expected when asked misleading questions.
Example study where pairs of children (one participant and one bystander) were asked misleading questions ten days post-event demonstrated that children struggled with misleading questions, especially those implying abuse.
Although age differences in suggestibility existed for less critical details, no age differences were found for central details when misleading questions pertained to the main actions of the event.
Children's Responses in Suggestive Interviews
INTERVIEWER BIAS
Interviewer bias refers to interviewers who hold preconceived beliefs about events and frame interviews to gather information that confirms these beliefs, often ignoring inconsistent evidence.
Studies show that biased interviewers lead to inaccurate reporting from children, an example highlighted by Thompson et al (1997) on how questioning style influenced children's accounts dramatically based on the interviewer's orientation (accusatory vs. neutral).
SPECIFIC VERSUS OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
Interviewers often employ specific, leading questions that compromise accuracy.
Research indicates that children's recall is more accurate in response to open-ended queries compared to specific ones.
Example: A study by Peterson & Bell (1996) demonstrated open-ended questions yielded an accuracy rate of 91%, while specific questions dropped accuracy to 45%.
REPEATING SPECIFIC QUESTIONS
Repeated questioning leads to children altering their responses or speculating, diminishing the reliability of their contributions.
A study by Poole & White (1991) showed that repeated specific questions resulted in significant changes to younger children's reports.
REPEATING MISINFORMATION
Misinformation effects were evident in studies where children repeatedly interviewed under suggestive frameworks incorporated false details into their narratives.
Bruck et al (1995a) noted children misreported events when they were repeatedly exposed to misinformation.
EMOTIONAL ATMOSPHERICS
Interviewers can create emotional tones that significantly influence the child's responses.
Example from Goodman et al (1989) highlighted how children might misremember events based on the emotional atmosphere set by the interviewer.
STEREOTYPE INDUCTION
This technique involves suggesting certain traits or behaviors about individuals, which can influence children's reports subsequently.
An example from Leichtman & Ceci (1995) illustrated how preschoolers reported on actions influenced by stereotypes they had been exposed to.
ANATOMICALLY DETAILED DOLLS
Use of such dolls in interviews may induce suggestiveness rather than enhance accurate reporting.
Studies indicate young children may project behaviors or scenarios influenced by what they perceive as expectations from the interviewer.
THINKING ABOUT AND IMAGINING
Techniques encouraging children to imagine events can create false memories.
Ceci et al (1994a,b) demonstrated how repeated encouragement of imaginary events can lead to the incorporation of these into the child's narrative as real events.
SUBTLE SUGGESTIVE INFLUENCES
Many suggestive techniques are subtle and can propagate inaccuracies in children's reports without overt coercion.
Studies have shown how parents can subtly influence children's memories by reading them fabricated stories that include events that did not happen.
MULTIPLE SUGGESTIVE TECHNIQUES
The cumulative effect of multiple suggestive techniques in a single interview can have greater adverse effects on report accuracy compared to applying a single technique.
A study highlighted by Bruck et al (1997a) showed an escalation in acceptance of both true and false events through repeated suggestive interviews.
The Effect of Suggestive Interviews on Children's Credibility
Contrary to assumptions, suggestively interviewed children do not merely repeat interrogator words; they create credible narratives, including unprompted false reports consistent with suggestive questioning.
Research suggests trained professionals cannot reliably distinguish between accurate and fabricated reports produced under suggestive conditions.
Linguistic markers of narratives do not consistently differentiate true memories from false reports that emerge from suggestive interviews.
Children's False Reports: Compliance or False Belief?
The mechanisms behind children's suggestibility remain a complex area of study.
Evidence suggests children's susceptibility may reflect both social influences (compliance) and cognitive memory alterations.
Children may provide inaccurate responses due to their innate compliance with adults, coupled with the potential for developing false beliefs about events suggested to them through repeated interviews.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Strong evidence highlights various suggestive techniques can distort children's reports, particularly when used in biased contexts or in combination.
Findings indicate:
Age differences exist in suggestibility, with preschoolers consistently being the most susceptible.
Individual differences among children influence susceptibility.
Children, even young ones, can accurately recall important details under non-suggestive conditions.
Research indicates the reliability of children's reports is heavily influenced by the interviewer’s techniques and biases, which necessitates careful evaluation in legal contexts to avoid wrongful convictions.