Spring Final Review Study Notes: WWII to Modern America

World War II

FDR (Franklin Delano Roosevelt): The $32^{nd}$ President of the United States who led the nation through the majority of World War II. He was the only president elected to four terms and established the "Arsenal of Democracy" to supply the Allies before the U.S. officially entered the conflict.
December 7, 1941: The date of the Imperial Japanese Navy's surprise military strike against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory. This event directly precipitated the United States' formal entry into World War II the following day.
Chronology of U.S. in the War: The U.S. entry began in late $1941$ . Major milestones included the mobilization of the home front ( $1942$ ), the North African campaign (Operation Torch, $1942$ ), the invasion of Italy ( $1943$ ), the D-Day invasion of Normandy (June $6, 1944$ ), the Battle of the Bulge (winter $1944-1945$ ), and the final surrender of Germany (V-E Day, May $8, 1945$ ) and Japan (V-J Day, September $2, 1945$ ).
Harry Truman/Decision to drop the Atomic Bomb: After FDR's death, Vice President Harry Truman took office and faced the decision of whether to use the Manhattan Project's atomic weapons. He ultimately authorized the bombing of Hiroshima (August $6, 1945$ ) and Nagasaki (August $9, 1945$ ) to force a Japanese surrender and avoid a costly land invasion of the Japanese home islands.
Women during WW II: Women played a vital role in the war effort by entering the workforce in unprecedented numbers, famously symbolized by "Rosie the Riveter." They worked in munitions factories, shipyards, and served in non-combat military roles such as the WACs (Women's Army Corps) and WASPs (Women Airforce Service Pilots).
African Americans during WWII: Over one million African Americans served in the armed forces, though usually in segregated units. This era saw the "Double V Campaign" (victory over fascism abroad and victory over racism at home) and the rise of the Tuskegee Airmen. Executive Order $8802$ also banned discrimination in the defense industries.
Years of WWII: The war began on September $1, 1939$ , with the invasion of Poland and concluded with the Japanese surrender on September $2, 1945$ .
Genocide/Holocaust: The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of approximately six million Jews and millions of others (Romani, people with disabilities, Soviet prisoners of war, and political dissidents) by the Nazi regime and its collaborators.
Navajo Code Talkers: A group of Navajo soldiers who used their native language to create an unbreakable code for secure communications in the Pacific Theater. Their contributions were vital to the success of several battles, including Iwo Jima.
Battle of Midway: Fought in June $1942$ , this was a decisive naval battle in the Pacific Theater. The U.S. Navy defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy, marking a turning point that halted Japanese expansion and allowed the U.S. to begin its "island hopping" strategy.
Douglas MacArthur: A five-star general who commanded the Allied forces in the Southwest Pacific. He is well-known for his promise to return to the Philippines and for overseeing the eventual Allied occupation of postwar Japan.
Invasions in Europe: Key operations included Operation Torch (North Africa), the invasion of Sicily and mainland Italy, and Operation Overlord (D-Day), which opened the Western Front in France and led to the liberation of Paris.
War Bonds: Debt securities issued by the government to finance military operations. Citizens purchased these bonds as a patriotic duty, providing the government with immediate capital to fund the massive costs of the war.
Post war Europe: Following the war, Europe was divided by the "Iron Curtain." Western Europe received aid through the Marshall Plan for reconstruction, while Eastern Europe fell under the influence of the Soviet Union, leading to the Cold War.
Post War Japan: Japan was occupied by Allied forces, primarily led by the U.S. and General Douglas MacArthur, from $1945$ to $1952$ . During this time, Japan was demilitarized, and a new democratic constitution was established.
Bataan Death March: After the surrender of American and Filipino forces on the Bataan Peninsula in $1942$ , approximately $60,000$ to $80,000$ prisoners of war were forced to march roughly $65$ miles under brutal conditions, resulting in thousands of deaths due to physical abuse and starvation.

Early Cold War and 1950’s

Dwight D Eisenhower: The $34^{th}$ President ( $1953-1961$ ) and former Supreme Allied Commander. His presidency was marked by the end of the Korean War, the creation of the Interstate Highway System, and the policy of "Massive Retaliation."
NATO/Marshall Plan: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established in $1949$ as a mutual defense alliance against Soviet aggression. The Marshall Plan was an American initiative to provide over $13$ billion dollars in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after World War II.
Korean War: A conflict between North Korea (supported by China and the USSR) and South Korea (supported by the UN/U.S.) from $1950$ to $1953$ . It ended in an armistice, with the border remaining near the $38^{th}$ parallel.
Interstate Highway Act: Signed by Eisenhower in $1956$ , this authorized the construction of a $41,000$ -mile network of interstate highways across the nation. It was designed for commerce and national defense (easy evacuation of cities and movement of troops).
Containment: The primary U.S. foreign policy strategy during the Cold War, aimed at preventing the spread of communism beyond its existing borders. This policy was largely formulated by diplomat George Kennan.
Suburbs: The postwar period saw a massive migration from cities to planned residential communities like Levittown. This growth was fueled by the housing shortage, the GI Bill, and the rise of the automobile.
Berlin Airlift: Following the Soviet blockade of West Berlin in $1948$ , the U.S. and its allies flew supplies, food, and fuel into the city for nearly a year until the blockade was lifted in $1949$ .
Capitalism: An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and the creation of goods and services for profit in a free market, standing in direct ideological opposition to Soviet Communism.
Domino Theory: The belief that if one nation fell to communism, neighboring nations would inevitably follow, like a row of dominoes. This theory heavily influenced U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia.
Rock-and-Roll: A genre of popular music that emerged in the mid- $1950s$ , blending blues, gospel, and country. Artists like Elvis Presley became icons, contributing to a new, distinct youth culture and generational divide.
HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee): A congressional committee created to search for disloyalty and subversive activities. In the late $1940s$ and $50s$ , it focused on identifying communist influence in the U.S. government and the Hollywood film industry.
Baby Boom and its problems: The significant increase in the birth rate between $1946$ and $1964$ . Problems associated with it included the initial strain on the educational system and the eventual long-term pressure on Social Security and healthcare systems as the generation reached retirement.
Sputnik: The first artificial Earth satellite, launched by the USSR in $1957$ . Its success triggered the "Space Race," led to the creation of NASA, and prompted an increased national focus on science and mathematics education.
McCarthyism: Named after Senator Joseph McCarthy, this term refers to the practice of making accusations of subversion or treason (specifically related to communism) without proper evidence. It characterized the climate of fear during the second Red Scare.
German zones of occupation: After WWII, Germany was divided into four occupation zones controlled by the U.S., Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. The western zones eventually merged to form West Germany, while the Soviet zone became East Germany.
Post war US economy: The U.S. experienced a period of immense economic growth characterized by increased consumer spending, the growth of the middle class, and the expansion of the "military-industrial complex."

Civil Rights

Brown v. Board of Education: A landmark $1954$ Supreme Court case that ruled that "separate but equal" facilities were inherently unequal, thereby declaring state-mandated segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
AIM (American Indian Movement): An advocacy group founded in $1968$ to address issues of systemic poverty, police brutality, and civil rights violations against Native Americans, as well as to advocate for tribal sovereignty.
NOW (National Organization for Women): Founded in $1966$ by Betty Friedan and others, this organization sought to bring women into full participation in mainstream American society and achieve equal rights, especially in the workplace.
MLK (Martin Luther King Jr.): A prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement who advocated for nonviolent civil disobedience. He led the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the March on Washington before his assassination in $1968$ .
Betty Friedan: An American feminist writer and activist. Her book, The Feminine Mystique ( $1963$ ), is often credited with sparking the second wave of American feminism.
Desegregation of the military: Accomplished by President Harry Truman in $1948$ through Executive Order $9981$ , which abolished racial discrimination in the United States Armed Forces.
Letters from a Birmingham Jail: An open letter written on April $16, 1963$ , by Martin Luther King Jr. that defended the strategy of nonviolent resistance to racism and argued that people have a moral responsibility to break unjust laws.
Civil Right Act of 1964: A landmark piece of civil rights legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools and public accommodations.
Caesar Chavez & Dolores Huerta: Co-founders of the United Farm Workers (UFW). They utilized nonviolent tactics, such as strikes and boycotts (specifically the Delano grape strike), to improve working conditions and wages for migrant farm laborers.
Affirmative Action-California v. Bakke: A $1978$ Supreme Court case that upheld affirmative action, allowing race to be one of several factors in college admission policy, but ruled that specific racial quotas were unconstitutional.
Chicano Mural Movement: An artistic movement that began in the $1960s$ in Mexican-American barrios throughout the Southwest. Artists used public walls to depict Mexican-American culture, history, and the struggle for civil rights.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: Legislation that prohibited racial discrimination in voting, essentially outlawing literacy tests and other disenfranchisement tactics used against African American voters in the South.
Plessy v Ferguson: An $1896$ Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. It remained the law of the land until overturned by Brown v. Board.
Desegregation: The process of ending the separation of two groups, usually referring to the integration of schools, housing, and public facilities following the Civil Rights Movement.
Earl Warren: Chief Justice of the Supreme Court ( $1953-1969$ ) whose "Warren Court" oversaw many landmark civil rights cases, including Brown v. Board of Education.
I Have a Dream Speech: Delivered by Martin Luther King Jr. during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August $28, 1963$ . It called for an end to racism and for civil and economic rights.

1960’s

John F Kennedy: The $35^{th}$ President, known for the New Frontier program, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and his challenge to land a man on the moon. His presidency was cut short by his assassination on November $22, 1963$ .
NASA technology: The space program led to numerous technological advancements that eventually entered the civilian market, such as improved telecommunications, GPS, and various materials like memory foam and scratch-resistant lenses.
Domino theory: The geopolitical theory that the fall of one nation to communism would lead to the fall of its neighbors. This was the primary justification for the escalation of the Vietnam War in the $1960s$ .
Bay of Pigs Invasion: A failed military invasion of Cuba in April $1961$ , undertaken by a CIA-sponsored paramilitary group of Cuban exiles. It was intended to overthrow the communist government of Fidel Castro.
Cuban Missile Crisis: A $13$ -day confrontation in October $1962$ between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over the discovery of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. It is considered the closest the world ever came to nuclear war.
24th Amendment: Ratified in $1964$ , it prohibited both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax.
Lyndon B Johnson: The $36^{th}$ President who succeeded JFK. He is famous for his "Great Society" programs and for significantly escalating U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
Great Society: A set of domestic programs launched by LBJ in $1964-1965$ with the main goals of eliminating poverty and racial injustice. It included the creation of Medicare, Medicaid, and Head Start.
1968 Democratic Convention: Held in Chicago, this convention was marked by massive protests against the Vietnam War and a violent police response. The internal division within the Democratic Party helped lead to the election of Richard Nixon.
Rolling Thunder: Operation Rolling Thunder was a gradual and sustained aerial bombardment campaign conducted by the U.S. $2^{nd}$ Air Division against North Vietnam from $1965$ to $1968$ .
US Strategies in Vietnam: Strategies included "Search and Destroy" missions, the use of napalm and defoliants (Agent Orange) to clear jungle, and the policy of "Vietnamization" later in the war.
War Powers Act: Passed in $1973$ over President Nixon's veto, this law requires the President to notify Congress within $48$ hours of committing armed forces to military action and prohibits armed forces from remaining for more than $60$ days without congressional authorization.
Vietnam Draft: The Selective Service System was used to fill vacancies in the armed forces. It became highly controversial, especially as it was seen to disproportionately affect the poor and minorities.
Draft cards: Documents issued to men registered for the draft. Burning or destroying draft cards became a frequent form of protest against the Vietnam War.
Vietnamization: A policy of the Richard Nixon administration to end U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War by expanding, equipping, and training South Vietnamese forces to take over the combat role.
Robert McNamara: The Secretary of Defense under Kennedy and Johnson who played a major role in escalating the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War.
Agent Orange: A herbicide and defoliant chemical used by the U.S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program in Vietnam. It caused serious health issues and birth defects for both Vietnamese civilians and U.S. veterans.
Pentagon Papers: A top-secret Department of Defense study of U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam from $1945$ to $1967$ . Their leak to the New York Times in $1971$ revealed that the government had systematically lied to the public and Congress.

1970s and 1980s

Richard Nixon: The $37^{th}$ President ( $1969-1974$ ). Notable for his visit to China, the policy of détente with the USSR, and his resignation following the Watergate scandal.
Roles of the president: Includes Chief of State, Chief Executive, Chief Administrator, Chief Diplomat, Commander-in-Chief, Chief Legislator, Chief of Party, and Chief Citizen.
Relationship with China: Nixon's surprise $1972$ visit to the People's Republic of China ended years of diplomatic isolation and was a masterstroke of "triangular diplomacy" to put pressure on the Soviet Union.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Established in $1970$ by the Nixon administration to consolidate federal research, monitoring, and standard-setting activities regarding environmental protection.
Endangered Species Act: Passed in $1973$ , this law provides for the conservation of species that are endangered or threatened and the conservation of the ecosystems on which they depend.
Watergate Scandal: A major political scandal following a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate office complex. The subsequent cover-up by the Nixon administration led to a constitutional crisis and Nixon's resignation.
Executive Privilege: The power claimed by the President and other members of the executive branch to resist certain subpoenas and other interventions. Nixon unsuccessfully used this defense during the Watergate scandal to try and withhold the "Watergate Tapes."
Silent Majority: A term popularized by Richard Nixon to refer to the large number of Americans who did not join in the large protests against the Vietnam War or the counterculture of the $1960s$ .
Impeachment: The process by which a legislative body levels charges against a high government official. While the House Judiciary Committee approved articles of impeachment against Nixon, he resigned before the full House could vote. Both Bill Clinton and Donald Trump were subsequently impeached (though not removed).
Gerald Ford: The $38^{th}$ President, who took office after Nixon's resignation. He is best known for his controversial pardon of Richard Nixon.
Jimmy Carter: The $39^{th}$ President, whose term was marked by the Camp David Accords, the Iran Hostage Crisis, and economic struggles including high inflation and energy shortages.
OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries): This intergovernmental organization of oil-producing nations staged an oil embargo in $1973$ against nations supporting Israel, causing a major energy crisis in the U.S.
Economy of the 70s: Characterized by slow economic growth and high inflation, a combination that traditional economic theory thought was impossible.
Stagflation: A term used in economics to describe a situation where the inflation rate is high, the economic growth rate slows, and unemployment remains steadily high.
Ronald Reagan: The $40^{th}$ President ( $1981-1989$ ). His presidency saw the rise of the "New Right," an escalation of the Cold War arms race, and profound shifts in economic policy.
Conservative agenda: Focused on tax cuts, deregulation, reduced government spending on social programs, and a strong national defense.
Trickle Down Theory: Also known as Supply-side economics or "Reaganomics." The theory suggests that by providing tax cuts and benefits to the wealthy and corporations, the benefits will eventually "trickle down" to the rest of the economy through investment and job creation.

Modern America

George HW Bush: The $41^{st}$ President, who led the U.S. during the end of the Cold War and the Persian Gulf War.
Persian Gulf War: A conflict in $1990-1991$ triggered by Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. A U.S.-led coalition launched Operation Desert Storm to liberate Kuwait.
Banning US pop culture: Various regimes and groups in different parts of the world have attempted to ban or limit American pop culture (movies, music, fashion) to prevent "Westernization" or to maintain traditional religious or cultural values.
Bill Clinton: The $42^{nd}$ President, whose tenure saw a period of significant economic prosperity, the signing of NAFTA, and a high-profile impeachment.
Clinton’s impeachment: In $1998$ , Clinton became the second U.S. president to be impeached by the House of Representatives.
2 charges against Clinton: The two specific articles of impeachment were Perjury (lying under oath to a grand jury) and Obstruction of Justice, both related to his relationship with Monica Lewinsky.
George W Bush: The $43^{rd}$ President. His presidency was dominated by the War on Terror following the $9/11$ attacks and the start of the Iraq War.
September 11, 2001: A series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by Al-Qaeda against the United States, involving the hijacking of commercial airplanes to strike the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.
Hurricane Katrina: A devastating Category $5$ hurricane that hit the Gulf Coast in August $2005$ . The resulting levee failures in New Orleans and the perceived slow government response led to widespread criticism of the Bush administration and FEMA.
Financial Crisis of 2008 – 2009: The worst economic disaster since the Great Depression, triggered by the collapse of the housing bubble and the subprime mortgage crisis.
Response to financial crisis: The U.S. government responded with massive bailouts to stabilize the banking system (TARP - Troubled Asset Relief Program) and low interest rates by the Federal Reserve.
Barack Obama: The $44^{th}$ President and the first African American to hold the office. His presidency included the passage of the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare).
Election of 2008: Notable for the election of Barack Obama over John McCain and for taking place during the peak of the global financial crisis.
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009: An economic stimulus package passed by the Obama administration to save and create jobs and provide relief to those most affected by the recession.
Multinational Corporation: A large business that operates in many different countries. The rise of these corporations is a hallmark of the modern global economy.
Globalization: The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale, leading to increased interconnectedness of economies and cultures world-wide.

Practice Test: 1970s and 1980s

Instructions: Select the correct answer for each question.

Who was the 37th President of the United States?    a) Gerald Ford
   b) Jimmy Carter
   c) Richard Nixon
   d) Ronald Reagan
What scandal led to Richard Nixon's resignation?    a) Watergate Scandal
   b) Iran-Contra Affair
   c) Monica Lewinsky Scandal
   d) Lewinsky Affair
Which President is known for the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)?    a) Ronald Reagan
   b) Jimmy Carter
   c) Richard Nixon
   d) Gerald Ford
What did the Endangered Species Act aim to achieve?    a) Increase forestation
   b) Protect endangered species and ecosystems
   c) Promote renewable energy sources
   d) Reduce air pollution
What economic condition characterized the 1970s?    a) Economic boom
   b) Hyperinflation
   c) Stagflation
   d) Recession
What was the term “Silent Majority” popularized by Richard Nixon used to describe?    a) The vocal anti-war protesters
   b) Those who supported the Vietnam War
   c) Americans who were indifferent to political issues
   d) The large population of youth in America
Who was the 39th President of the United States?    a) Richard Nixon
   b) Gerald Ford
   c) Jimmy Carter
   d) Ronald Reagan
Which of the following was a significant foreign policy initiative by Nixon?
   a) Gulf War
   b) Détente with the USSR
   c) Escalation of Vietnam War
   d) Camp David Accords
What major international organization imposed an oil embargo in 1973?    a) OPEC
   b) NATO
   c) EU
   d) ASEAN
What significant event took place at the Watergate complex?     a) A major political debate
    b) A break-in during the 1972 election
    c) The signing of a treaty
    d) A presidential inauguration
Who became President after Nixon's resignation?     a) Gerald Ford
    b) Jimmy Carter
    c) Ronald Reagan
    d) George H.W. Bush
What was a major focus of Jimmy Carter’s presidency?     a) Economic prosperity
    b) Environmental reform
    c) Energy crisis management
    d) Foreign military intervention
What was the primary economic challenge known as stagflation?     a) High inflation and low employment
    b) Low inflation and high growth
    c) High inflation and high unemployment
    d) Economic growth and low unemployment
Who was the 40th President of the United States?     a) Richard Nixon
    b) Gerald Ford
    c) Ronald Reagan
    d) Jimmy Carter
What economic theory was promoted by Ronald Reagan, suggesting benefits would "trickle down" to all?     a) Keynesian Economics
    b) Supply-Side Economics
    c) Demand-Side Economics
    d) Socialism
What was the primary justification for Nixon's policy of détente?     a) To support communism
    b) To reduce Cold War tensions with the USSR
    c) To increase military spending
    d) To isolate Western Europe
What was the main goal of the Endangered Species Act of 1973?     a) To eliminate pollution
    b) To restore public trust in government
    c) To protect threatened and endangered species
    d) To promote hunting and fishing rights
Which President pardoned Richard Nixon for any crimes he may have committed while in office?     a) Gerald Ford
    b) Jimmy Carter
    c) Lyndon B. Johnson
    d) Richard Nixon
What was significant about the 1968 Democratic Convention?     a) It was held in New York City
    b) It was characterized by riots and violent protests
    c) It unified the Democratic Party
    d) It led to the election of Richard Nixon
Who was the Secretary of State who played a key role in the Camp David Accords?     a) Henry Kissinger
    b) Colin Powell
    c) George Shultz
    d) John Kerry
Which movement focused on conservation and environmental concerns in the 1970s?     a) The New Left
    b) The Green Movement
    c) The Civil Rights Movement
    d) The Women's Movement
What was President Carter's focus during his administration?     a) Reducing the influence of Congress
    b) Promoting civil rights
    c) Navigating the energy crisis
    d) Winning the Vietnam War
Which President initiated the "War on Drugs" in the 1980s?     a) Richard Nixon
    b) Gerald Ford
    c) Ronald Reagan
    d) Jimmy Carter
What term describes the economic growth experienced during the Reagan administration?     a) Stagflation
    b) Fairness Doctrine
    c) The New Economy
    d) The Great Society
What led to the energy crisis of the 1970s?     a) Increased production of oil
    b) OPEC's oil embargo
    c) The creation of the EPA
    d) Increased U.S. military spending
What genre of music became popular in the 1980s associated with the youth culture?     a) Jazz
    b) Country
    c) Rock-and-Roll
    d) Disco
Which President focused on reducing government spending on social programs?     a) Richard Nixon
    b) Ronald Reagan
    c) Jimmy Carter
    d) Gerald Ford
Which legislation did Nixon sign related to environmental protection?     a) Clean Air Act
    b) National Environmental Policy Act
    c) Endangered Species Act
    d) All of the above
What is the significance of the decade of the 1980s in U.S. history?     a) The rise of conservatism in politics
    b) The fall of communism in Europe
    c) The first African American president
    d) All of the above
What action did President Ford take shortly after taking office?     a) Pardon of Richard Nixon
    b) Launching the War on Poverty
    c) Initiating the space race
    d) Establishment of OPEC
What was Operation Rolling Thunder?     a) A military operation in Vietnam
    b) An oil embargo
    c) A domestic economic initiative
    d) A space exploration program
What was a significant result of the Watergate scandal?     a) Creation of new laws for governmental transparency
    b) Increased military spending
    c) Increased morale among voters
    d) Stronger support for Nixon’s policies
What economic position did the U.S. find itself in after the oil embargo?     a) Economic boom
    b) Recession
    c) Stagnation
    d) Growth
Who was the first environmental activist to elevate public awareness in the 1970s?     a) Rachel Carson
    b) Sylvia Earle
    c) Albert Gore
    d) John Muir
Who was known as the "Great Communicator" during the 1980s?     a) Richard Nixon
    b) Bill Clinton
    c) Ronald Reagan
    d) Jimmy Carter

Good luck with your practice!