Racial, Ethnic and Global Inequality

Racial group: A category that is set apart and treated differently from others due to perceived physical differences.
Ethnic group: A group distinguished from others by its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns.
- Key distinction: The difference between racial and ethnic minorities is not always clear-cut; they are not synonymous.
Minority group: A subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their lives compared to the members of a dominant or majority group.

Prejudice: A negative attitude towards an entire category of people, often aimed at an ethnic or racial minority, perpetuating false definitions of individuals and groups.
Ethnocentrism: The judgment of other cultures by the standards of one's own group, leading to prejudice against those viewed as inferior.
Discriminatory behaviour: The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups based on arbitrary bias.
- Misconception: Prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviour are related but do not equate; one can occur without the other.

White privilege: The unacknowledged advantages that come with being white; white individuals typically take this status for granted.
- Increasing sociological interest exists regarding the implications of being “white.”
Stereotypes: Unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that ignore individual differences.

Definition: Denial of opportunities and equal rights that arises from the normal operations of society.
  - Structural factors affecting discrimination include:
    - Employment
    - Housing
    - Healthcare
    - Government operations
  - Such discrimination consistently impacts certain racial and ethnic groups more severely.
Examples of institutional discrimination:
  - Rules requiring the exclusive use of English in workplaces.
  - Preferences in admissions policies in law and medical schools favoring children of wealthy alumni.
  - Restrictive employment policies that limit part-time work.
Racial or ethnic profiling: The use of race as a consideration for suspect profiling in law enforcement practices, a specific form of institutional discrimination.

Functions of Racism:
- Provides moral justification for sustaining an unequal society.
- Discourages subordinate minorities from questioning their oppressed status, reinforcing societal foundations.
Social Dysfunctions:
  - Society neglects the contributions of individuals across all racial groups.
  - Discrimination exacerbates social issues like poverty and crime.
  - Substantial investment is required to uphold barriers to full participation of all members.
  - Racial prejudice and discrimination negatively influence diplomatic relations.

Exploitation Theory:
  - Exploitation of the working class by the capitalist system.
  - Racism maintains minority members in low-paying roles, providing cheap labor for the ruling capitalist class.
  - Creates conditions where racialized individuals receive lower wages—workers from dominant groups can often be replaced by minorities willing to accept lower pay.

Colonialism: The prolonged political, social, economic, and cultural domination of a group by a foreign power. Central values include notions of racial superiority and inferiority.
Neo-colonialism: A form of indirect control characterized by economic dependency without direct political control.
Globalization: The global integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and exchange of ideas.

Describes the progression of peripheral nations from traditional, less developed institutions to more developed societal characteristics.
- Recognized by sociologists as containing ethnocentric biases.
- Viewed as a movement along indicators such as urbanization, energy use, literacy, and political democracy.

Argues that as developing countries progress, they maintain a subordinate relationship with core nations, allowing continued exploitation by industrialized nations.

Divides the global economy into nations that control wealth (core nations) and nations exploited for resources (semi-periphery and periphery nations).
Examples:
  - Core: Canada, France, Germany, Japan, United States.
  - Semi-periphery: China, India, Mexico, South Africa.
  - Periphery: Afghanistan, Haiti, Chad, Vietnam.

Studies show intergenerational mobility patterns, indicating that parents’ positions in socio-economic hierarchies significantly influence their children's status.
Structural factors such as labor market shifts affect mobility opportunities across different countries, e.g., trends seen in Canada.
Immigration is an essential element in shaping levels of intergenerational mobility.

Mobility patterns in developing nations are often overshadowed by broad macro-level social and economic changes, unlike the micro-level occupational mobility seen in developed countries.
In large developing nations, the main social mobility of significance is rising out of poverty, which is variable.
Women in developing regions face particularly challenging circumstances.
A comprehensive view of global stratification must factor in the disparities both between wealthy and poor nations and the diversity of hierarchies within both developing and developed countries.
Conclusion: The gap between rich and poor nations continues to widen, with increasing inequality among individuals within nations as well.