Unit 2 AOS 1
Overview of the human lifespan
Developmental transitions from youth to adulthood (PIES)
Perceptions of youth and adulthood as stages of the lifespan
Healthy and respectful relationships
Healthy and respectful relationships and health and wellbeing
Healthy and respectful relationships and development
Considerations associated with becoming a parent
Fertilisation and the stages of prenatal development
The role of parents in determining optimal prenatal development, optimal development in infancy and optimal development in early childhood
Early life experiences and the intergenerational nature of health and wellbeing
Overview of the human lifespan
Prenatal: Fertilisation β Birth (approx. 38 weeks)
Begins when sperm fertilises an egg, forming a zygote.
Fastest period of growth and development.
Development of organs, body structures and major growth occurs.
Vulnerable stage where environmental factors can impact development.
Infancy: Birth β 2 years
Period of rapid physical growth and development.
Develops motor skills (e.g. crawling, walking), language and social skills.
Develops attachment to familiar people.
Achieves important developmental milestones that influence future development
Early childhood 2 β 6 years
Growth becomes slower but steady.
Develops social skills, independence and communication.
Learns skills such as toilet training, eating independently and forming friendships.
Develops emotional and intellectual abilities.
Late childhood 6 β 12 years
Slow and steady physical growth.
Influenced by primary schooling.
Develops reading, writing, memory and problem-solving skills.
Forms friendships outside the family and improves motor skills.
Youth 12 β 18 years
Transition from childhood to adulthood.
Rapid physical growth and sexual maturity due to puberty.
Increased independence and development of identity.
Experiences major social, emotional and intellectual changes.
Develops relationships, goals and life skills.
Early Adulthood 18 β 40 years
Physical peak occurs around 25β30 years, followed by gradual decline.
Focus on career development, relationships and possible family formation.
Develops independence, responsibility and emotional maturity.
Middle Adulthood 40 β 65 years
Physical signs of ageing begin to appear.
Often characterised by stable careers, relationships and finances.
Develops personal identity, values and beliefs.
May experience menopause, children leaving home and becoming grandparents.
Late Adulthood 65 years β Death
Often involves retirement and increased leisure time.
Physical health and functioning may decline.
May experience loss of loved ones and changes in living arrangements.
Reflects on life achievements, leading to satisfaction or regret.
Transitions from youth to adulthood (PIES)
Physical Development
Changes to the body and body systems.
Growth spurt during puberty (height and weight increase).
Growth plates (epiphyseal plates) fuse β height growth stops.
Reach sexual maturity
Primary sex characteristics (involved in reproduction) referred to as the βgenitalsβ start to develop during puberty
Secondary sex characteristics (not involved with reproduction, nor present at birth) fully develop. Males: broader shoulders, increased muscle mass. Females: wider hips, increased body fat around hips and thighs.
Bones become stronger and reach maximum bone density in early adulthood.
Improved coordination, strength and endurance.
Motor skills become more refined.
Intellectual Development
Increase in complexity of thinking, knowledge and memory.
Greater knowledge through school, work and life experiences.
Memory improves; use of strategies like mnemonics.
Larger vocabulary and better language skills.
Develop abstract thoughts (thinking about concepts and ideas) rather than just the physical objects you can see (concrete thought).
Better problem-solving and decision-making skills.
Can think critically, distinguish fact from opinion and consider consequences.
Creativity and imagination develop.
Attention becomes more focused on interests, careers and goals.
Emotional Development
Learn to recognise and express emotions appropriately.
Self-concept and identity become stronger.
Become more emotionally independent from parents.
Experience more complex emotions (love, guilt, pride, fulfilment).
Better emotional regulation and self-control.
Develop coping strategies for stress and setbacks.
Greater confidence and self-esteem.
Increased resilience through life experiences. Resilience= ability to cope with and recover from challenges or difficult events. Built by developing coping strategies: relaxation, meditation, goal setting, talking to others, positive self-talk
Social Development
Increasing independence from parents.
Peer group becomes highly influential.
Develop more mature communication skills.
Form intimate and romantic relationships.
Learn conflict resolution and compromise.
Take on new social roles (employee, partner, adult).
Better understanding of social expectations and responsibilities.
Make more independent decisions about education, work and lifestyle.
Perceptions
Perceptions are beliefs or opinions based on how things seem, influenced by personal experiences, including what people see and hear. Some people have positive perceptions, some people have negative perceptions, and many people have a mix of both.
Youth:
Positive: Ambitious, hardworking, happy and positive. Have many opportunities
Negative: Lazy, selfish and self-centred. Uneducated and immature. Often stereotyped as involved in crime
Adults:
Positive: Wise and experienced. Valuable source of advice and guidance
Negative: Judgemental and out of touch, resistant to change, live in the past. Poor drivers+ complain a lot
Healthy and respectful relationships
A relationship is the connection between two or more people, or groups of people, and their involvement with one another over a period of time. Relationships are complex and dynamic, and can be healthy or unhealthy.
Types of relationships
Family: love, security, care, support and guidance.
Friendships: shared interests, support, companionship; can influence decisions.
Online: maintained through social media/online communication; can have positive or negative outcomes.
Intimate: strong emotional/romantic connection; consent is essential.
Teachers/coaches/mentors: guidance + support, especially for young people.
Professional: workplace relationships based on communication, trust, respect and shared goals.
Parenting styles
Style | Key characteristics | Main impacts |
|---|---|---|
Authoritarian | Strict rules, punishment, little negotiation | β emotional H&W, β self-esteem/mental H&W, β problem-solving |
Authoritativeβ | Rules + flexibility, explanations, consequences/rewards | β decision-making, problem-solving, social connections, self-esteem |
Permissive | Little discipline, parent acts like friend | Poor emotional management, β self-esteem, β social development |
Uninvolved | Little interest, neglects basic needs | β happiness/self-esteem, β emotional & mental H&W, β physical/intellectual/social development |
Healthy & respectful relationships
Key characteristics:
Respect β values others' feelings, needs, thoughts and rights.
Trust β reliability, dependability and feeling safe.
Honesty β telling the truth; builds trust.
Loyalty β support and consistency.
Empathy β understanding another person's feelings.
Safety β physically + emotionally safe; no abuse.
Equality β equal value, contribution and expectations.
Communication β sharing thoughts, feelings, concerns and expectations.
Verbal vs non-verbal communication
Verbal: talking + listening to communicate facts, thoughts and feelings.
Non-verbal: body language, facial expressions + tone of voice.
Poor communication β misunderstandings, hurt, anger and confusion.
Unhealthy relationships
feeling uncomfortable around a person or group of people
being put down by others
not feeling appreciated, valued or cared for
feeling that the relationship is unequal and one person is putting in greater effort than others to maintain the relationship
low self-esteem and a lack of confidence around others
being embarrassed, bullied or harassed
feeling scared, vulnerable, constantly disappointed or angry.
Abuse
Financial abuse: when one person controls, restricts or monitors the finances of another
Physical abuse: The use of physical force that causes injury or harm to another person.
Emotional abuse: Behaviour that causes emotional harm, such as lowering self-esteem or causing anxiety and depression.
Sexual abuse: Any unwanted sexual behaviour or sexual assault that causes harm to another person
Consent (FRIES)
Must be freely given, reversible, informed, enthusiastic and specific.
Can be withdrawn at any time.
Consent is required every time.
Someone who is very drunk, high, asleep or unconscious cannot consent.
Considerations associated with becoming a parent
Parenting the process of promoting the physical, emotional, social and intellectual development and health and wellbeing of a child from birth to adulthood
Changes in relationships
Partner: less time together β possible distance, conflict or resentment.
Family: new roles such as grandparents, aunts/uncles and siblings.
Friends/social network: less spontaneity and more planning β possible social isolation.
Changes in responsibility
Parents have a legal responsibility to:
protect their child from harm
provide their child with food, clothing and housing
financially support the child
provide safety, supervision and control
provide medical care
provide an education.
Additional stressors
Health: lack of sleep β lower energy and mood
Psychological: stress from caring for an unsettled baby
Financial: increased spending + potentially lower income
Social: loneliness/social isolation
Lifestyle: less travel, dining out and leisure
Support: lack of support β reduced resilience
Expectations: pressure to be a βgoodβ parent
Balancing responsibilities: unequal childcare responsibilities
Communication: becomes more task-focused
Parenting style: different beliefs can cause conflict
Social support
Involves a social network of relatives, friends, neighbours and community groups who are able to provide practical assistance, such as:
money
babysitters
help with meal preparation
care of other children
sharing of information
assistance with transport
help in case of emergencies or with household tasks
Emotional support
Showing empathy and care for another person, can help a parent cope with their emotions and experiences and show them that they are not alone. Emotional support involves:
active listening
empathising and validating
love or care and encouragement
problem solving
Having adequate social and emotional support is important for parents and carers. Parents who are well supported:
are better able to provide for their childβs needs
feel less stressed
feel more able to relate to their child
make good decisions and model appropriate behaviours.
Health Literacy promoting health outcomes
Higher parental education and health literacy can support:
Healthy pregnancy behaviours
Access to healthcare
Nutritious diet
Avoiding smoking, alcohol and drugs
Breastfeeding knowledge
SIDS prevention
Better employment/income opportunities
Resources new parents need:
knowledge of health-promoting behaviours and parenting practices
material resources, such as income and food
resources provided by all levels of government.
- Federal government resources for new parents
Family Tax Benefit
Medicare
Parental Leave Pay
Raising Children and Raising Kids websites
The Pregnancy, Birth and Baby helpline
Child Care Subsidy
-State resources for new parents
Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Service: free health, development and parenting support
MCH app: information and appointment reminders
MCH Line: 24/7 advice from qualified nurses
-Local government resources:
Recreation facilities
Community health and wellbeing plans
Immunisation programs
Long day care
Local maternal and child health services
Playgroups
Fertilisation and the stages of prenatal development
Fertilisation occurs when a sperm penetrates an ovum and the genetic materials fuse together to make a single cell called a zygote. When fertilised, the newly formed cell (zygote) travels down one of the fallopian tubes while constantly dividing. When it reaches the uterus, the group of cells now called a blastocyst implants itself in the endometrium and, at this point, it becomes known as an βembryoβ.
Following fertilisation, the cells divide and multiply and form an embryo. After three or four more days, a healthy embryo will be transferred, by means of a thin flexible tube, to the uterus where it is left to implant and begin a pregnancy.