Age of Exploration and Columbian Exchange

Causes of the Age of Exploration

• Access to Asian Goods: Europeans sought greater and more direct access to the spices and other diverse products originating from Asia.
• Bypassing Land Routes: There was a significant desire to find sea routes to Asia because the existing land routes were controlled by Muslim powers.
• Ottoman Control: The Ottoman Empire maintained control over the city of Constantinople and the Mediterranean Sea Trade Complex, necessitating the discovery of alternative maritime paths for European merchants.
• Religious Zeal: Missionaries were driven by the goal of teaching about and spreading Christianity to all corners of the world.
• Mercantilism: This economic system posits that colonies exist Primarily to provide resources and goods to the "mother country" (the European power).
• Navigational and Sailing Technology: Significant improvements in technology made long sea voyages viable for the first time. Key advancements include:
  • Compass and Astrolabe: Instruments used for orientation and determining latitude.
  • Cartography: The science and practice of making maps became more sophisticated.
  • Caraval: A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese.
  • Lateen Sail: Triangular sails that allowed ships to sail against the wind.

Exploration in the Eastern Hemisphere: The Indian Ocean

• Portuguese Leadership: Portugal took the lead in exploring the Indian Ocean. Its status as a coastal nation meant that sea travel was always vital to its survival and economy.
• Prince Henry the Navigator: He significantly expanded Portuguese exploration by providing essential funding for numerous expeditions.
• Bartolomeu Dias: Noted as the first European explorer to reach the Southern tip of Africa.
• Vasco de Gama: The first European explorer to reach India by sea, with the intent of trading for spices. He used what were described as "pirate techniques" to establish and maintain a monopoly over the spice trade.
• The Dutch East India Company ($V.O.C.$): This was a corporation focused on establishing trade routes within Southeast Asia. They frequently utilized military force to establish and secure their trading ports.
• The British East India Company: This entity took over trade in India by defeating Portuguese forces. They established a robust military presence in India to maintain total control over trade activities.
• Weakening of the Ottoman Empire: As new maritime trade routes successfully bypassed the city of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire began to lose its economic dominance and grew weaker.
• Ferdinand Magellan ($1519$): He was the first explorer to circumnavigate (sail around) the entire globe. However, Magellan died during the journey. The statistics of his expedition highlight the danger:
  • Only $1$ of his $3$ ships returned to Europe.
  • Only $18$ out of the original $270$ explorers returned safely.

Exploration and Conflict in the New World

• Christopher Columbus: Commissioned by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to find a sea route to India by crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Once Europeans realized he had discovered a "New World," motivation for further exploration increased across many nations.
• Treaty of Tordesillas: This was a decree by the Pope that split the world in half using a "line of demarcation." Everything to the East of the line was granted to Portugal, while everything to the West was given to Spain.
• Conquistadors: These were Spanish explorers and conquerors who claimed land for Spain in the Americas.
• Hernando Cortez ($1520$): He conquered the Aztec Empire. He accomplished this by forming strategic alliances with neighboring states that were currently under Aztec power.
• Francisco Pizarro ($1532$): He conquered the Inca Empire located in the Andes Mountains.
• Impact of Smallpox: This disease devastated native populations. Because they had lived in isolation from the Eastern Hemisphere, they had no natural immunity to fight the infection.

The Columbian Exchange and Triangular Trade

• The Triangular Trade Route: This refers to the specific trade pattern established by Europeans in the Atlantic Ocean:
  • Europeans traveled to Africa to acquire slaves.
  • Slaves were transported to colonies in the Americas.
  • Goods produced in the Americas were then brought back to Europe.
• Visualizing the Map Routes:
  • Thirteen Colonies to England and Europe: Exports included Fish, Whale Oil, Lumber, and Tobacco.
  • England and Europe to Africa: Exports included Iron Products.
  • Africa to the West Indies (and onto North America): Exports included Slaves and Gold.
  • West Indies to the Thirteen Colonies: Exports included Rum and Iron Products.
  • Thirteen Colonies to the West Indies: Exports included Meat, Lumber, Flour, and Fish.
  • England and Europe to the West Indies: Exports included Teas, Spices, Furniture, Cloth, and Tools.
• Definition of the Columbian Exchange: This term describes the vast exchange of people, plants, animals, ideas, and technology between the "Old World" (Europe) and the "New World" (North and South America).
• Cultural Diffusion: The Columbian Exchange is considered the ultimate example of cultural diffusion, which is the exchange of goods and ideas between different civilizations.
• Specific Items Exchanged:
  • From Europe to the Americas: Wheat, sugar, bananas, horses, chickens, and diseases including smallpox and measles.
  • From the Americas to Europe: Maize (corn), potatoes, beans, squash, chili peppers, cocoa, and tobacco.

Global Effects of the Columbian Exchange

• Effects on Europe and Asia:
  • Slave Trade: The increasing demand for labor on colonial plantations led to a surge in the number of people forcibly taken from Africa to the Americas.
  • The Middle Passage: This was the treacherous sea journey from West Africa to the Caribbean. It was characterized by extremely crowded and dangerous conditions, resulting in the deaths of many enslaved Africans.
  • Population Growth: The introduction of calorie-dense crops like corn and potatoes led to massive population increases in Europe and Africa. A specific example is how the potato significantly increased the food supply in Ireland.
  • Disease: New diseases from the Americas, such as syphilis, began to impact European populations.
  • Wealth Generation: The economic systems of mercantilism and colonization generated immense wealth for "mother countries" by exploiting both the colonized people and their lands.
• Effects on the Americas:
  • Animals: The introduction of cows, pigs, and sheep provided new food sources. Cattle also became instrumental in agricultural planting processes.
  • Devastating Mortality: As much as $50\%$ of the native population was killed by diseases like smallpox, as their isolation left them with no immunity.
  • Civilization Collapse: Great Native American civilizations, such as the Inca (conquered by Pizarro) and the Aztec (conquered by Cortez), were systematically attacked and destroyed, with smallpox playing a major role in their downfall.
  • Environmental Impact: Large portions of the land in the Americas were overused by European settlers.
  • Enslavement: The era saw the widespread enslavement of both native populations and imported Africans.

Economic Systems of Colonization

• Spanish Colonization: Spain and Portugal took over vast lands in the Americas, which were designated as colonies.
• The Encomienda System: This was a forced labor system where Native Americans were required to work on Spanish farming plantations (primarily growing sugar) and in Spanish mines to extract gold and silver. Under this system, Spanish landowners held total control over the lives of Native Americans.
• Implementation of Mercantilism: Colonies were strictly viewed as assets to enrich the mother country. Spain and Portugal tightly controlled colonial trade to maximize profit:
  • Raw Materials: Materials like cotton were taken from the American colonies.
  • Finished Products: European powers converted raw materials into finished goods (such as clothing) and sold them back to the colonies.