Study Notes for Active Philosophy: An Introduction Chapter 4

Late 1600s philosophical movement akin to modern technological spreads (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, I-Cloud).
Known as "British Empiricism" featuring prominent figures like John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.
Emerged during a critical philosophical battle between Continental Rationalists and British Empiricists.
Impacted American Philosophy and the development of the Scientific Method.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism:
   - Central distinction: the model representing the best example of knowledge.
   - Descartes’ era: Geometry (Euclid's theorems) as the paradigm of knowledge, leading to expectations for knowledge to be based on axioms and rigorous deduction.
   - Spinoza: Exemplified Rationalism by composing his Ethics geometrically.
Shift in Paradigm:
- Emergence of Newtonian physics as a competing model based on observation rather than axiomatic deduction.
- Resulted in the acceptance of knowledge based on experience, reintroducing empirical models of knowledge.

Historical Context:
- Descartes as the figurehead of Rationalism; contemporaries include Spinoza and Leibniz.
- British philosophers like Isaac Newton advocating for knowledge derived from observation.
Resulting shift towards British Empiricism, defined by the pursuit of acquiring knowledge through sensory experience.
Effects on philosophy include heightened interest in empirical theories.

Known for advocating against the divine right of kings; espousing liberal egalitarian principles wherein all have natural rights to liberty.
Definition of liberty:
- Not merely freedom to do as one wishes but freedom from domination.
- Justification for property rights stemming from self-ownership, contributing to his political philosophy influencing the U.S. Founding Fathers, particularly Thomas Jefferson.

Locke's major work: Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
Tabula Rasa:
- Concept that the mind begins as a blank slate, with all ideas originating from experience.
- Differentiation between simple ideas (e.g., solidity, figure) and complex ideas (e.g., the idea of a dog).

Rejection of Descartes’ standard of certainty:
- Locke's pursuit emphasizes a justified belief in the existence of the material world.
- Knowledge = Justified True Belief: Acceptable justification includes reasonably high probability rather than absolute certainty.

A Priori:
- Knowledge independent of experience (e.g., mathematical truths).
- Examples include definitions (e.g., all bachelors are unmarried).
A Posteriori:
- Knowledge dependent on empirical evidence and experience (e.g., scientific observations).
- Examples of A Posteriori truths include subjective experiences (e.g., my hair is brown).

Approach utilizes A Posteriori knowledge, adopting a hypothetical-deductive method (Inference to Best Explanation).
Competing hypotheses:
- Solipsism: Matter does not exist; only one's perception exists.
- Locke’s Hypothesis: Matter exists externally to the mind.
Key observations challenging solipsism:
- Uncontrollable sensory experiences (e.g., headaches).
- Coherence of sensory data across observations.
Conclusion: Material Substance exists beyond perception, influencing our sensory experience.

Naive Representationalism:
- View that sense data are accurate representations of material substances (rejected by Locke).
**Limited Representationalism:
   - Recognition that not all sensory qualities correlate to material properties.
   - Distinction between *Primary Qualities* and Secondary Qualities:
       - Primary Qualities: (inherent properties of matter) e.g., motion, number, solidity, shape, size.
       - Secondary Qualities: (only exist in perception) e.g., color, taste, smell, tactile sensations, temperature.
   - Justification of distinction includes the variance argument and Consonance with Physics:
       - Secondary qualities' variations suggest they do not resemble their material objects.
       - Laws of physics suggest secondary qualities arise from interactions with the sensory system.

Acknowledgement that human perception is bounded by physiological limits and further enhanced by technology.
Challenges posed by skepticism regarding perceptions and the nature of knowledge—Hume's scrutiny of causation and induction introduces deeper skepticism.

Advocates for Idealism based on empiricist grounds: the belief that only ideas exist, with no underlying physical substance.
Essence of perception: “Esse est percipi” (To be is to be perceived).
Critiques Locke's primary-secondary quality distinction, arguing all are mere appearances without underlying substance.
Concept of a sustaining god: objects exist as ideas in God’s mind when unperceived.

Major influence on contemporary analytic philosophy and Logical Positivism.
Distinction of mental representations into vivid impressions (directly perceived sensations) and less vivid ideas (imaginative recollections).
All ideas derived from experience; imagination associates ideas through resemblance, contiguity, and causal relationships.
Skepticism: Hume posits that we cannot justifiably affirm objective moral truths or causation due to the lack of empirical evidence for necessary connections.
Causation: Defined in terms of:
- Constant conjunction of cause and effect.
- Temporal priority and spatial contiguity.
Lack of empirical basis for necessary connections between causes and effects leads Hume to dismiss rational justification for causation.

Critique of inductive reasoning:
   - Example given in relationship to heating water.
   - Justification for inductive inference becomes circular without external validation.
   - Skepticism extends to the assumption that unobserved instances will follow observed patterns.
Implications of Hume’s skepticism challenge foundational beliefs in science and knowledge.

Hume's introspection reveals only transient perceptions; the self is simply a collection of experiences.
Critiques Cartesian assertions of a unified self.

Skepticism on religious beliefs, particularly miracles; endorsement of rational skepticism grounded in empirical calls.
Challenges to design arguments diminish belief in a personal god based on observed natural events.

Attempts to synthesize the perspectives of Rationalism and Empiricism.
Introduced in The Critique of Pure Reason, seeking to delineate the limits of metaphysics and epistemology.

John Locke is recognized as the Father of Empiricism, balancing between materialism and dualism.
The philosophical tensions paved the way for further developments in epistemology and metaphysics.