Neurotransmitters

Neuromodulators

Neuropeptide transmitters

E.g endogenous opioids , 3 classes (endorphins , enkephalins , dynorphins )

GLP-1 : glucagon like peptide , increase insulin secretion connected to food intake . Signaling can suppress appetite , promote satiety

Analgesia (Pain relief ) and reward

Opioids activate the the Mesolimbic reward system

Endocannabinoids acts as retrograde messenger’s

Adenosine - neuromodulator

Nitric oxide (NO) , retrograde NT , synaptic plasticity

Non peptide vs peptide NT

Stimulants

• caffeine , antagonistic

• Nicotine, affects cons , ach imitation , more an release higher by

• Amphetamines , increases dopamine and adrenaline release

  Release serotonin

Enhanced alertness, wakefulness , endurance

-cocaine

Glial cells

Neurolia

1) Astrocytes

Most numerous star harped

Form blood brain barrier

Tight junction formed by their signals

Supply energy to neurons

Store glycogen and supply lactate

Maintain glutamate homeostasis in the CNS

2) microglia

Specialised immune cells , functionally equivalent to macrophages

Produce substances that have anti inflammatory roles

Two types - non activated and activated

3) ependymal cells

Lines ventricles and central canal of spinal fluid

4) oligodendrocytes

4) Schwann cells and satellite cells

Glial cells and nerve regeneration

Schwann cells in PNS support nerve regeneration

CNS regeneration after injury is poor

Astrocytes release proteins making a scar if there is spinal cord trauma

Disorder of glial cells

• MS

• Alzheimer’s

• ALS (

• Parkinson’s

Transmission , integration , connection - circuits

Reciprocal inhibition

Inhibitory circuits are significant for control of neuronal activity , amplifies signals

Stiff person syndrome absence of inhibitory control., autoantibodies against glutamic acid decarboxylase, muscle stiffness and spasms