Freud developed the psychodynamic approach:

• ‘Psycho’ refers to mind and ‘dynamic’ refers to change or activity

• So, this approach emphasises the active nature of mental processes and their role in shaping personality and behaviour. This approach was developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), in the 18th/Early 19th centuries

It assumes that:

1. Human behaviour has unconscious causes that we’re not aware of

2. From birth, humans have a need to fulfil basic biological motivations- for food, sleep, warmth etc

3. Childhood experiences are a significant influence on the development of adult personality and psychological disorders

Freud said there are 3 levels of consciousness:

Freud was interested in ‘hysteria’, a disorder involving physical symptoms such as headaches, paralysis and blindness, but with no apparent physical cause. As his parents couldn’t give any conscious reasons, Freud concluded they had an unconscious mind and that’s where the cause of the hysteria was. He identified 3 levels of consciousness:

1. Conscious: This is what we are aware of at any given time, e.g what we are seeing, hearing, smelling, or thinking

2. Preconscious: This is made up of memories that we can recall when we want to, e.g. we can recall our address, phone number, childhood memories or what we did at the weekend

3. Unconscious: This is made up of memories, desires and fears which cause us extreme anxiety and have therefore been ‘repressed’ or forced out of conscious awareness. However, the unconscious still influences behaviour. For example, it causes ‘Freudian slips’ and influences the content of our dreams. This part of our mind can be accessed with the help of a psychoanalyst, using the methods that Freud developed

Freud said there are 3 parts of the personality:

Freud claimed that the 3 main parts of the personality are the id, the ego, and the superego and these represent different levels of consciousness:

1. The id is the basic animal part of the personality that contains our innate, aggressive and sexual instincts. It wants to be satisfied by whatever means possible, and obeys the ‘pleasure principle’. It accounts for unreasonable behaviour and appears at birth

2. The ego exists in both the conscious and unconscious parts of the mind and acts as a rational part known as the ‘reality principle’. It develops within the first 3 years after birth and balances the id and superego to keep our behaviour in line

3. The superego is in both the conscious and unconscious parts of the mind. This is the part of the mind that considers our morals and is involved in making us feel guilty. It includes ideas about how to behave that we adopt from our parents

The ego and the superego develop as the child goes through 5 stages of psychosexual development: The oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital stages.

Conflicts can develop between the parts of the personality:

1. So, as you know, the id, ego and superego represent different levels of consciousness and govern the way we think and act

2. A way to see the relationships between these 3 aspects of the personality is by thinking of an iceberg. The tip of the iceberg is the consciousness part of the mind made up of part of the ego and part of the superego. But the majority of the personality comes from the unconscious mind, below the surface. It’s made up of the id, a little of the ego and the rest of the superego

3. Freud believed that these 3 different parts of consciousness can be in conflict. For example, there can be a conflict between the id and the superego because the id wants instant satisfaction, whilst the superego tries to impose morals

4. These conflicts can lead to anxiety. It’s then the ego’s job to mediate between the id and the superego to reduce this anxiety

5. It does this using one of several unconscious defence mechanisms:

   • Repression: It involves the ego stopping unwanted and possibly painful thoughts from becoming conscious. For example, someone who experienced a traumatic incident, such as being mugged, may not recall it later. This is because they have repressed the memory

   • Denial: It is where a threatening event or an unwanted reality is simply ignored and blocked from conscious awareness. For example, a drug addict might deny that they have a problem, or someone suffering from bereavement might deny that their loved one has died

   • Displacement: It happens when a negative impulse is redirected onto something else. This could be another person or an object. For example, if your boss has made you angry at work, you might redirect your anger towards something else by kicking a door at home

Freud reckoned early experiences influence development:

1. Freud proposed there are 5 stages of development:

   • Oral: 0-18 months results in sucking behaviour

   • Anal: 18 months-3.5 years results in keeping or discarding faeces

   • Phallic: 3.5-6 years results in genital fixation

   • Latent: 6 years-puberty results in repressed sexual urges

   • Genital: Puberty-adult results in awakened sexual urges

2. Each stage of psychosexual development focuses on obtaining pleasure through a certain part of the body

3. How parents raise a child affects how much pleasure is obtained through that stage (e.g. how strict they are when potty training, and what type of role models they are)

4. If a child doesn't receive enough pleasure, or they receive too much, during a stage of development, they will become ‘fixated’ at that stage

   • For example, during the oral stage, a conflict could occur when being weaned off breastfeeding. This could lead to a fixation in later life, characterised by traits such as nail biting, smoking or abnormal eating behaviours

5. This experience is all repressed into the unconscious but influences adult personality. Severe fixation could lead to a psychological disorder

Freud carried out case studies:

• As part of psychoanalysis, Freud did case studies on his patients using several methods to reveal the conflicts, fears and desires buried in their unconscious mind. These problems could then be faced, allowing the patient to understand and resolve the

Freud (1909)- The case study of Little Hans:

• Method: Freud carried out a case study of a child called Hans who had a phobia of horses. Hans was observed by his father, who made notes of Han’s dreams and stuff he said and passed them on to Freud for analysis

• Results: Hans was afraid of horses because he thought they might bite him or fall on him. During the study he developed an interest in his penis. His mum had told him not to play with it or she’d cut it off. Hans told his dad about a dream where he was married to his mum and his dad was now his grandfather

• Conclusion: Freud’s interpretation was that Hans had reached his phalic stage of development and showed evidence of the ‘Oedipus complex’- he wanted to have an exclusive relationship with his mother and was jealous of his father. Hans had sexual feeling for his mother, shown partly by his dream of marrying her. The horse symbolised Han’s father because, to him, they both had big penises. His fear of horses is an example of displacement- a defence mechanism that protected him from his real fear of his father. Hans suffered from castration anxiety. He was afraid that he would be castrated by his father if he found out about his feeling for his mother. This was symbolised by Hans’s fear that a horse would bite him

• Evaluation: This was a case study, meaning that it provided lots of detailed data about one subject, but it does mean the results can’t be generalised. The findings provided evidence to support Freud’s theories. However, the results were based entirely on observation and interpretation. This means a cause and effect relationship can’t be established. There could be other expectations- for example, Hans’s anxiety may have come from his mother threatening to cut his penis off. Also, before the study Hans had been frightened by a horse falling down in the street, which could explain his fear of them. Freud analysed information from Hans’s father, so the results could be biased

The psychodynamic approach has strengths and weaknesses:

• Like every approach in psychology, the psychodynamic approach has some strengths and weaknesses. A lot of its weaknesses are related to the research methods used by Freud

Strengths:

1. The psychodynamic approach was the first theory to focus on psychological causes of disorders. Before this, the focus had been on physical causes or things like possession by evil spirits

2. It was also one of the first approaches to suggest that mental health disorders may be linked to unresolved conflicts related to biological needs

3. It offers methods of therapy (such as psychoanalysis) which may also uncover unconscious conflicts. Patients can then understand the causes of their problems and so resolve them and release their anxieties

4. Freud’s theory places emphasis on how experiences in early childhood can affect later development. This has formed the basis for lots of other important theories

Weaknesses:

1. Freud’s claims are based on his subjective interpretations of his patients’ dreams, etc. Therefore they’re often unreliable and open to bias

2. Freud’s theories are often related to the unconscious mind, which can’t be accessed. As such, his theories are unfalsifiable (i.e. they can’t be proved wrong)

3. Psychoanalysis may take a long time and so be very expensive. The childhood conflicts that are ‘uncovered’ may be emotionally distressing and possibly inaccurate, depending on the reliability of the patient’s memory, the techniques used to uncover them and the analyst’s interpretations

4. The focus is on the patient’s past, rather than on the problems that they are currently suffering

5. The approach is based on case studies of people in ‘distress’, so the findings can’t be generalised to everyone else

6. The unscientific research methods mean it’s not possible to establish cause and effect