CEE - SCIENCE
Living things are called organisms. All organisms are made up of cells.
- Cells are the smallest unit that can carry out all of the functions of life. These functions include taking up nutrients and water, getting rid of waste, getting and using energy, and interacting with the environment.
- Unicellular organisms are made up of one cell. Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells. The cells in multicellular organisms are often specialized to carry out specific functions.
- All cells come from other cells. New cells are made through a process called cell division. During cell division, one cell grows and splits into two.
- Single cells are typically too small to be seen with the naked eye. So, people often view cells through a microscope.
- All cells have a cell membrane that separates the inside and the outside of the cell, and controls what goes in and comes out. The cell membrane surrounds a cell's cytoplasm, which is a jelly-like substance containing the cell's parts.
- Cells contain parts called organelles. Each organelle carries out a specific function in the cell. A cell's organelles work alone and together to keep the whole cell functioning.
- Mitochondria are organelles that break down sugars. This process releases energy that the cell can use.
- The nucleus is an organelle that contains a cell's genes.
- Chloroplasts are organelles that carry out photosynthesis, which makes the food plant cells need to live. This food is in the form of sugars.
- Plant cells have chloroplasts and a cell wall, but animal cells do not. The plant cell wall is outside the cell membrane, and it provides structure for the cell.
- The human body is a complex system made up of interacting parts. These parts include organ systems, organs, tissue, and cells.
- Cells in the human body are specialized. This means that they have unique structures and functions.
- A tissue is a grouo of similar specialized cells. A tissue's cells work together so that the tissue can do its job.
- An organ is made up of multiple types of tissues. These tissues make up an organ's structure, and also work together.
- An organ system is a group of organs that work together to carry out complex tasks in the body.
- The human body is made up of multiple organ systems. These organ systems interact to help the body grow and survive.
- The nervous system helps humans and other animals sense and respond to their environments.
- Sensory receptors are cells or cell parts that detect signals from the environment. These signals are called stimuli.
- Some sensory receptors detect mechanical stimuli. These include the receptors involved with our sense of touch.
- Other sensory receptors detect chemical stimuli. These include receptors involved with our sense of taste and smell.
- Others detect electromagnetic stimuli. These include the receptors involved with our sense of sight.
- Information from sensory receptors is transmitted, or passed along, nerve cells to the brain.
- The brain processes, or organizes, information from different sensory receptors. The brain can then trigger a response or store the information as a memory.
- Reproduction is the process of making mew organisms. Parent organisms reproduce to make offspring.
- When organisms reproduce, they pass their genetic information to their offspring. This genetic information includes genes, which are pieces of hereditary material that affect an organism's inherited traits.
- During asexual reproduction, a single parent produces offspring. The offspring have the same genes, and therefore the same inherited traits, as the parent. (genetically identical)
- During sexual reproduction, two parents produce offspring. The offspring have a mix of genes from both parents. As a result, offspring have a different set of traits compared to either parent. (genetically unique)
- Many animals use sexual reproduction to have offspring. To do this, an animal typically mates with an individual of the opposite sex. Mating results in fertilization, and the production of offspring.
- An animal's reproductive success is related to the number of offspring it has during its life. An animal that has more surviving offspring likely has a higher reproductive success.
- Animals carry out certain behaviors to increase their reproductive success:
• displays that attract mates
• protecting and feeding young offspring
- A plant that has more surviving offspring typically has a higher reproductive success.
- Certain animal behaviors can help increase a plant's reproductive success. For example, pollinators are animals that help flowering plants reproduce through pollination.
- When pollinators feed on flowers, they transfer pollen from male to female flower parts. This can led to fertilization, and the production of new offspring for the plant.
- Many plants have special features to attract pollinators. For example, a flower's scent may attract pollinators.
- Animals can also help with seed dispersal, or the movement of seeds away from a parent plant. Seed dispersal increases the chance that a seed will grow in an area with plenty of resources.
- Some seeds have structures that help them stick to an animal's fur. This allows the seeds to be carried to a new area.
- An organism's traits depend on both its genes and its environment
- Genes make up the hereditary material inside an organism's cells. Genes provide information about an organism's traits. Genes can affect how an organism grows. Any influence of genes is called a genetic factor.
- An organism's environment is all the things the organism is exposed to as it lives and grows. Any influence of the environment is called an environmental factor
• Many organisms make their own food through photosynthesis. Plants, algae, and some unicellular organisms do photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is powered by energy from sunlight. This energy is used to rearrange atoms in carbon dioxide and water to make oxygen and sugars.
• Carbon dioxide and water are inputs of photosynthesis. These inputs come from the environment.
• Oxygen and sugars are outputs of photosynthesis.
• The oxygen is released into the environment.
• The sugars can provide chemical energy. This energy can be used by the organism to live and grow. The sugars can also be used to build the organism's structures, or they can be stored for later use.
• Photosynthesis is usually carried out in chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are cell structures that contain molecules called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll helps capture light energy.
• Some important food molecules are fats, proteins, and sugars. These all contain carbon atoms.
• In animals, large food molecules are broken down into smaller molecules during digestion. These smaller molecules eventually make it inside cells. Here, chemical reactions rearrange the molecules' atoms, forming new molecules.
• Many of these new molecules can become part of an organism's cells and tissues. This helps the organism grow bigger and stay healthy.
• Other molecules from food are used for energy. This occurs through the process of cellular respiration.
• Cellular respiration is a process that happens inside an organism's cells. This process releases energy that can be used by the organism to live and grow.
• Many food molecules are broken down into glucose, a simple sugar. Glucose is used in cellular respiration.
• Glucose (C6H1206) and oxygen (602) are inputs of cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide (6CO2) and water (6H2O) are outputs. In multicellular organisms, the steps of cellular respiration occur in the cytosol and the mitochondria.
• Populations and communities are groups of organisms
• A population is a group of the same species living in the same area. A community is a group of different species living in the same area.
• An ecosystem is all of the organisms in an area plus the nonliving parts of their environment.
• Organisms interact with both living and nonliving parts of their ecosystem.
• Organisms in an ecosystem need resources to survive. Organisms that get more resources are more likely to grow and produce offspring.
• Organisms often need the same limited resources. This can lead to competition between organisms. Competition can happen between organisms of the same species. It can also happen between organisms of different species.
• Competitive interactions happen when organisms compete for the same set of resources.
• Predatory interactions happen when one organism hunts and eats another organism.
• Mutualistic interactions happen when two organisms of different species benefit from interacting with each other.
• Energy enters an ecosystem when light energy from the sun is transformed into chemical energy. This happens during photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is carried out by photosynthetic organisms.
• Photosynthesis drives the movement of matter, or atoms, between organisms and the environment.
• Photosynthetic organisms take in and use carbon dioxide and water from the air and soil.
• Photosynthetic organisms produce sugars, which become part of the organism's biomass. When the photosynthetic organism is eaten, its biomass provides matter and energy to the organism that eats it.
• Matter describes the atoms that make up an ecosystem's partsm Matter cycles between the living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem.
• Energy changes form as it moves through an ecosystem. Energy that enters an ecosystem eventually leaves as heat.
• Producers are organisms that make their own food inside their cells (e.g. plants), they allow energy to enter an ecosystem.
• Consumers are organisms that eat another organisms. Primary consumers eat producers. Secondary consumers eat primary consumers.
• Decomposers are organisms that consume dead plant and animal matter. When they do this, they return matter back to the environment.
• Food webs are models that show how energy and matter move in an ecosystem. The arrows in a food web point away from the organism being eaten, and toward the organism doing the eating.
• Ecosystems are dynamic. This means that the characteristics of ecosystems and their population vary over time.
• Ecosystem often experience disruptions, or changes. These changes can happen in either living or nonliving parts of an ecosystem. Any change in an ecosystem can affect the populations that live there.
• A change in any one part of an ecosystem can lead to changes in many of the ecosystem's populations.
• Biodiversity is the variety of species in an ecosystem.
• Biodiversity decreases when species go extinct, or die out. Extinction often happens when organisms can no longer survive because of changes to their ecosystems.
• Humans get many benefits from Earth's ecosystems. These benefits are called ecosystem services.
There are four types of ecosystem services:
• Provisioning ecosystem services are the resources that people extract from ecosystems. These include foods and drinking water.
• Regulating ecosystem services are all the processes that keep ecosystems healthy. These include fungi decomposing waste and tree roots preventing erosion.
• Supporting ecosystem services are the foundational processes that underlie all life on Earth. These include photosynthesis and the wayer cycle.
• Cultural ecosystem services are the ways that ecosystems benefit people's lives and traditions.
• All organisms inherit traits, or observable characteristics, from their parents.
• Information about inherited traits is found in genes. Genes are pieces of hereditary material that are passed from parents to offspring.
• Genes are part of celk structures called chromosomes. In multicellular organisms, chromosomes are found in the nucleus of the cell.
• Each of these chromosomes contains one, long molecule of DNA. A gene is a specific stretch of this DNA molecule.
• Each chromosome in the cell contains many genes.
• Every species has its own specific number of chromosomes. For example, humans have 46 chromosomes in a typical body cell.
• Many species have chromosomes that come in matched pairs. For example, the 46 chromosomes in a human cell can be organized into 23 pairs.
• These paired chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are the same size and shape.
• Homologous chromosomes contain the same genes. However, they may have different alleles, or versions, of those genes.
• Scientists and medical professionals can use a karyotype to view an organism's sets of chromosomes. In a karyotype, pairs of homologous chromosomes are arranged next to each other.
• DNA molecules are made up of smaller parts called nucleotides. So, a gene is a specific stretch of nucleotides within a chromosome's DNA.
• DNA is made up of four types of nucleotides. These nucleotides are often called by their shortened names: A, C, T, and G (which stand for adenine, cytosine, thymine, and guanine). The nucleotides in a gene are connected in a specific order.
• Proteins are molecules that carry out many different functions in cellls.
• Proteins are made up of smaller parts called amino acids. The amino acids in a protein are also connected in a specific order. A protein's amino acids determine its 3D structure and its function.
• The cell builds proteins using instructions found in genes. Specifically, the order of nucleotides in a gene determines the order of amino acids in one or more proteins.
• A mutation is any change to the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule. Some mutations arise as DNA is copied. Others are due to environmental factors.
• A mutation in a gene can change the structure and function of thr protein encoded by that gene. This, in turn, can affect an organism's traits.
Mutations can be considered harmful, beneficial, or neutral to an organism.
• Harmful mutations have negative effect on an organism's health and survival.
• Beneficial mutations have positive effects on an organism's health and survival.
• Neutral mutations have no observable effect on an organism's traits.
• Many sexually reproducing organisms are diploid. Diploid organisms have two sets of chromosomes in each cell. These chromosomes are organized into homologous pairs.
• In order to reproduce, diploid organisms produce gametes in the form of egg and sperm cells. These gametes are haploid. Haploid gametes have only one set of chromosomes.
• Sexual reproduction happens via fertilization. Fertilization is the fusion of gametes from two parents. Fertilization leads to new, diploid offspring.
• Sexual reproduction results in genetic variation, or genetic differences, between parents and offspring. Offspring inherit one set of chromosomes from each parent. So, an offspring has a mixture of chromosomes (and alleles) from its two parents.
• Sexual reproduction also results in genetic variation among siblings. When a parent forms a gamete, only one chromosome from each homologous pair is included at random. So, an offspring might inherit a different combination of chromosomes (and alleles) compared to its siblings.
• Evolution is the change in inherited traits that occur in a group of organisms over multiple generations. Inherited traits are those that are passed from parents to offspring via genes.
• Evolution is made possible by genetic variation, or gene differences, in a population. Genetic variation causes organisms within a population to have a range of different traits.
• One source of genetic variation is sexual reproduction. This type of reproduction causes offspring to have different sets of alleles (and traits) compared to their parents.
• An organism has evolved when traits in a population change over multiple generations of parents and offspring.
• Small differences between generations can add up. With enough time, evolution can give rise to new types of organisms.
• Evolution has given rise to the amazing diversity of organisms on our planet.
• Each modern species has a series of ancestral species stretching back through time. This series of ancestors is a species' evolutionary lineage.
• A common ancestor is an ancestral group of organisms that is shared by multiple lineages.
• An evolutionary tree models the relationships between different lineages and their common ancestors.
• Evolutionary trees have a branching pattern. The tips of the branches represent modern groups of organisms. The branch points, or places where the branches split, represent common ancestors that existed in the past.
• Species that share a common ancestor in the more recent past are more closely related. Species that share a common ancestor in the more distant past are less closely related.
• A fossil is the preserved evidence of an organism that lived in the distant past.
• Fossils are usually found in sedimentary rock. This type of rock forms from sediment, which is made up of pieces of rock, minerals, and organic matter.
• Sedimentary rock forms in layers. New layers form on top of old layers. So, fossils found in older, deeper layers are typically older than fossils found in newer, more shallow layers.
• Scientists can also use radiometric dating to figure out a fossil's age. Radiometric dating is a way to tell how old something is by studying its chemical properties.
• All of the fossils that have been found on Earth make up the fossil record
• The fossil record is made up of all the fossils that have been found, along with their relative ages.
• Fossil record shows us that there has been an overall increase in the complexity and diversity of organisms over time.
• A mass extinction is when many species die off around the same time.
• Scientists use information from the present day to determine past evolutionary relationships.
• Shared features resulting from common ancestry are called homologous features.
• Species that share more homologous features are likely more closely related
• Species that share fewer homologous features are likely less closely related
• Analogous features typically look similar or carry out the same function, but they actually evolved independently along different evolutionary lineages.
• Embryos are unborn or unhatched organisms early in the course of development.
• All vertebrate embryos have homologous structures called pharyngeal arches, or gill arches. In fish, these arches develop into part of the gills. In mammals, these arches develop into parts of the ears and jaw.
• In general, embryos of related species have more features in common at earlier stages of development than they do at later stages.
• Some traits make an organism more likely to survive and reproduce in its environment. These are called advantageous traits.
• Some traits make an organism less likely to survive and reproduce in its environment. These are called disadvantageous traits.
• The advantageous traits become more common in the population over multiple generations. This process is called natural selection.
• After an environmental change, traits that help organisms survive and reproduce in the new environment become more common.
• As helpful traits become more common, the population adapts to the new environment.
• Humans use artificial selection to develop organisms with useful or desirable traits.
• Another term for artificial selection is selective breeding.
• The types of organisms that result from artificial selection are considered domesticated.
• Actual motion is how objects actually move. (ex. Earth rotates on its axis)
• Apparent motion is how objects appear to move. (ex. due to Earth's rotation, the sun seems to rise and set each day)
• Early astronomers developed the geocentric model based on the apparent motion of the sun and stars. In this model, Earth is at the center of the universe.
• The geocentric model was later replaced by the heliocentric model. In this model, the sun is at the center of the universe.
• In reality, the sun is only at the center of our solar system, not the entire universe.
• A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust, and stars. Earth and its solar system are part of a galaxy called the Milky Way.
• Most galaxies are organized into galaxy groups or clusters. The Milky Way is part of a grouo of galaxies called the Local Group.
• All of these systems are held together by a force called gravity. Gravity is an attractive, or pulling, force that exists between all objects in the universe.
• The force of gravity between two objects depends on their masses and the distsnce between them.
• Our solar system formed from a huge cloud of gas and dust about 4.6 billion years ago.
• The four planets closest to the sun—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—are called the inner planets. These plantes have thin atmospheres, solid surfaces, few or no moons, and no rings.
• The four planets farthest from the sun—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—are called the outer planets. These planets have thick atmospheres, no solid surfaces, and many rings and moons.
• The inner and outer planets are separated by the asteriod belt, a ring-shaped region containing many rocky bodies called asteriod.
• Comets are dusty, icy bodies that orbit the sun beyond Neptune. Both comets and asteriods are much smaller than planets.
• Earth's axis is tilted. As a result, as Earth orbits the sun, different parts of Earth point toward or away from the sun. This causes the seasons.
• The Northern and Southern Hemispheres always have opposite seasons.
• Throughout the year, the equator receives the greates amount of direct sunlight, so it tends to be warm. In contrast, the poles receive the least, so they tend to be cold.
• The moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It rotates once on its axis and revolves once around Earth about every 27 days.
• A moon phase is the shape of the moon's sunlit portion as seen from earth. There are four major moon phases, which repeat every 29.5 days on average.
1. The new moon appears completely dark from Earth. This phase occurs when the moon is on the same side of Earth as the sun.
2. The full moon appears completely lit from Earth. This phase occurs when the moon is on the opposite side of Earth from the sun.
3. The first and third quarter moons both appear half-lit from Earth but on opposite sides. These phases occur when the moon forms a right angle with Earth and the sun.
4. A moon can either be waxing (getting bigger/increasing) or waning (getting smaller/decreasing). Waxing Crescent is the second phase in the cycle of phases, while the waning crescent is the eighth and final phase in the cycle of phases. On the other hand, the waxing gibbous phase is the fourth phase in the cycle of phases, and the waning gibbous is the sixth phase in the cycle of phases. The term gibbous means “humped-back.”
• A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon is covered by Earth's shadow. When the moon is partially covered, the eclipse is partial. When the moon is fully covered, the eclipse is total. Lunar eclipses can occur only during a full moon.
• A solar eclipse occur when the moon casts a shadow on part of Earth.
• Observers inside the shadow see a total solar eclipse. During a total solar eclipse, the moon fully covers the bright disk of the sun. This allows the sun's corona, or outer atmosphere, to be visible.
• In the moon's shadow, the air temperature drops an average of 10°F (5.5°C). This is because the moon is blocking most of the sun's energy from reaching that part of Earth.
• Solar eclipses occur only during the new moon. However, they do not occur every new moon because the moon's orbit is tilted relative to Earth's orbit around the sun.
• The water cyclr describes how water continuously moves between Earth's surface and the atmosphere
• Water moves into the atmosphere from oceans, lakes, and streams by evaporation. During evaporation, water changes from liquid water to water vapor (gas).
• Water also moves into the atmosphere by transpiration, or the evaporation of water from plants. Both evaporation and tranpiration are driven by the sun's energy.
• Water form clouds in the atmosphere by condensation. During condensation, water changes from water vapor to liquid water.
• Water falls down to Earth's surface by precipitation. This process is driven by gravity.
• Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given place and time. Weather is defined by factors such as temperature, rain, and wind.
• Changes in weather are caused by the movement of air masses. An air mass is a large body of air with uniform temperature and humidity. In general, air masses move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
• As air masses move, the collide and form weather fronts.
• A cold front is formed when a cold air mass moves into a warm air mass. Cold fronts usually bring cool temperatures and heavy rain or thunderstorms
• A warm front is formed when a warm air mass moves into a cold air mass. Warm fronts usually bring warm temperatures and moderate rain.
• A current is the steady flow of fluid (such as air or water) within a larger body of that fluid.
• Prevailing winds are air currents that blow mainly in one direction. The global pattern of prevailing winds is caused by the uneven heating of Earth's surface.
• As prevailing winds blow across the ocean, they create surface currents in the water. Both prevailing winds and surface currents appear to curve fue yo Earth's rotation. This is known as the Coriolis effect.
• Surface currents connect to form large, rotating system called gyres. Gyres circulate heat around Earth by moving warm water from the equator to the poles.
• The ocean also contains deep currents that are driven by differences in density. Denser water, which is colder and saltier, sinks into the ocean. Less dense water, which is warmer and less salty, rises.
• These vertical currents are connected by horizontal currents at the surface and in the deep ocean. Together, this system of currents is called the overturning circulation.
• Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a particular region.
• A region's climate is influenced by many factors, including latitude, elevation, and nearby geographic features
• Latitude is how far north or south a place is fron the equator. At higher latitudes, sunlight is less direct, leading to cooler climates.
• Elevation is how high a place is above sea lever. As air rises from sea level to higher elevations, it expands and cools. This result in cooler climates
• Geographic features are features of Earth such as large bodies of water or mountain ranges. Larg bodies of water help moderate air temperatures. Mountain ranges can create a rain shadow,
• The rock cycle describes how rocks on Earth form and change over time.
• When rocks are pushed deep below Earth's surface, they can melt to form magma. Magma that reaches Earth's surface through volcanic activity is called lava.
• Igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies
• Weathering breaks igneous and other types of rocks into smaller pieces called sediment. Erosion transports sediment from one place to another. Deposition drops sediment in a new location.
• Sedimentary rocks form when sediment is compacted and cemented. This process is called lithification
• Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are exposed to intense heat and pressure.
• Sedimentary rocks typically occur in horizontal layers called strata.
• In undisturbed strata, younger layers sit on top of older ones. This is known as the law of superposition.
• Strata can be cut by other geologic features, such as faults or intrusions. A fault is a crack in Earth's crust. An intrusion is a body of igneous rock formed within Earth's crust.
• When two features intersect, the one that cuts through the other is younger. This is known as the law of crosscutting relationships
• Some strata contain index fossils, or fossils associated with a specific time in Earth's history. If the same index fossil is found in different strata far apart, the layers likely formed around the same time
• By studying strata, geologists have determined the relative order of major events in Earth's history. The timeline of these events is called the geologic time scale.
• Earth's lithosphere, or outermost shell, is broken up into large pieces called tectonic plates.
• These plates move slowly over the asthenosphere, a layer of softer rock below the lithosphere. On average, tectonic plates move a few centimeters per year.
• The place where two plates meet is called a plate boundary. There are three main types of plate boundaries.
1. Divergent boundaries occur where two plates are moving away from each other. Along these boundaries, rift valleys and mid-ocean ridges are common
2. Convergent boundaries occur where two plates are moving toward each other. Along these boundaries, mountains and trenches are common.
3. Transform boundaries occur where two plates are moving past each other. Along these boundaries, earthquakes are common.
• There are two types of tectonic plates: oceanic and continental. Oceanic plates make up the ocean floor. Continental plates make up the continents.
• Both oceanic and continental plates are topped by crust. On average, oceanic crust is denser than continental crust.
• A trench forms when an oceanic plate collides with another plate at a convergent boundary. When this happens, the denser plate is subducted, or pushed under, the less dense plate.
• A mid-ocean ridge forms when two oceanic plates move apart at a divergent boundary.
• New oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges. As it ages, it moves away from the ridge and becomes cooler denser. Eventually, the crust reaches a trench and is destroyed.
• Weathering occurs when water breaks down rocks and soil to create sediment. There are two main types of weathering: mechanical and chemical.
• Mechanical weathering is the creation of sediment through physical means.
• Chemical weathering is the creating of sediment through chemical means
• Erosion occurs when water transports sediment from one place to another.
• Deposition (also called sedimentation) occurs when water drops sediment in a new location.
• A natural resource is anything found in nature that can be used by humans
• There are two types of natural resources: renewable and non-renewable. Renewable resources can be replaced over human lifetimes. Non-renewable resources cannot.
• Renewable resources are evenly distributed around Earth.
• Non-renewable resources are also unevenly distributed. This is because these resources are formed by geologic processes, which occur in specific places on Earth.
• A natural hazard is any natural event that poses a risk to humans or the environment.
• Earth's average temperature is rising, causing long-term shifts in global weather patterns. This is known as climate change.
• Climate change is caused mainly by greenhouse gas emissions. A greenhouse gas is a gas that traps heat in Earth's atmosphere. While greenhouse gases are naturally occuring, human activities have added too much of these gases to the atmosphere.
• The main greenhouse gas contributing to climate change is carbon dioxide (CO2). Most CO2 emissions are produced by burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
1. A reference frame is the point of view that you observe and measure things from. It is used to help define the motion or position of an object
2. Two people can have different reference frames of the same situation. If this happens, they will observe the motion and position of an object differently.
3. Units are a way to describe a measurement. They allow us to describe things, like an object's speed, mass, or position, in a consistent way.
4. A force is a push or pull on an object.
5. A net force is the sum of all of the forces acting on an object.
6. When there is a net force on an object, the object will change speed in the direction of the net force. The object's acceleration tells us how much it speeds up or slows down.
7. The acceleration of an object depends on the size of the net force pushing or pulling it and the mass of the object.
8. For every force, there is an equal and opposite reaction force.
9. The force of gravity, or gravitational force pulls objects with mass toward each other.
10. Larger masses = larger gravitational force. The further the distance the objects are from one another, the weaker the force is
11. An electric force exists between any two objects with electric charge—even if the objects aren't touching.
12. Electric forces can be attractive or repulsive.
13. Objects with opposite charge attract. Objects with the same charge repel
14. The electric force between two objects depends on the size of their charges and the distance between them.
15. A magnet is any object that can attract other materials with magnetic properties through a magnetic force
16. Every magnet has a north pole and a south pole. Either pole will attract iron.
17. The direction of magnetic force between two magnets depends on how the poles are oriented. Opposite poles attract, like poles repel
18. The strength of a magnetic force depends on the strength of the magnets and the distance between magnetic objects.
19. A field represents empty space around an object where a non-contact force, like gravity or an electric force, could exist.
20. The idea of fields was created to help explain how objects can exert forces on each other, even when they're not touching each other.
21. Gravitational fields exist around objects with mass. Electric fields exist around objects with charge. Magnetic fields exist around magnetic objects.
22. Each location in a field has a magnitude and direction. We can represent this by drawing field lines at different points around an object. These field lines can then be used to help explain the forces that an object would experience in that location.
23. When electric charges move, they create magnetic fields in the space around them
24. Electric charges moving through a wire create electric current.
25. Because electric currents are made up of moving charges, they create magnetic fields. An electromagnet is a coil of wires that becomes a magnet when electric currents runs through it.
26. Permanent magnets are always on While electromagnets only work when the electric current is turned on. Increasing the electric current/the number of wire loops increases the strength of the electromagnet
27. Changing the magnetic fields around a coil of wire (by moving a magnet nearby) can create electric current in the wire. Increasing the speed of the moving magnet, using a stronger magnet, or increasing the number of wire loops produces more electric current.
28. Electromagnets need a power source, while permanent magnets do not.
29. Permanent magnets have fixed strength and poles, while we can change the strength and poles of electromagnets
30. Kinetic energy is the energy that any object with mass has simply because it is moving. If an object is not moving, it has no kinetic energy.
31. An object's kinetic energy is directly related to its mass. An object's kinetic energy is also related to the squared value of its speed. If one is moving at twice speed of the other, the faster object will have four times the kinetic energy.
32. Kinetic energy equation: KE = ½mv²
33. Potential energy is energy that has the potentiak to become another form of energy. An object's potential energy depends on its physical properties and position in a system.
34. Gravitational potential energy due to an object's mass and position in a gravitational field
35. Magnetic potential energy due to a magnetic object's position in a magnetic field.
36. Electric potential energy due to the size of an electric charge and its position in an electric field.
37. Elastic potential energy of a spring or rubber band that is strecthed.
38. If two objects attract each other, moving them apart will increase their potential energy. If two objects repel each other, moving them apart will decrease their potential energies.
39. Energy can't be created or destroyed. If one object loses energy, another object has to gain that energy.
40. A wave is a repeating disturbance that travels through matter or space transferring only energy.
41. A wave's crest is its highest point, and its trough is its lowest point.
42. A wave's amplitude is the maximum distance (positive or negative) a wave reaches from its rest position
43. Wavelength is the distance between the same spot on two sections of a wave
44. A wave's frequency can be measured by how many crests (or how many troughs) pass a location in a certain amount of time.
45. A wave with a larger frequency has more energy. If a wave's frequency doubles, its energy also doubles.
46. A wave's energy is proportional to the square of its amplitude. So, if a wave's amplitude doubles, its energy increases by four times, because 2² = 4
47. Some waves can only travel through a material, or medium, such as air or water. These are called mechanical waves.
48. Sound waves, water waves, and seismic waves are all types of mechanical waves.
49. Other waves, called electromagnetic waves can travel through a medium or through a vacuum where there is no matter, such as outer space.
50. Light is a form of electromagnetic wave.
51. The amplitude and frequency of both mechanical and electromagnetic waves affect how we experience them.
52. A light wave's amplitude determines how intense, or bright, it is. Its frequency determines the light wave's color.
53. A sound wave's amplitude determines how loud it is. Its frequency determines the sound wave's pitch.
54. Transmission happens when a wave travels through a medium or into a new medium
55. Usually, waves travel in a straight line until they interact with a boundary. Refraction happens when a wave's path bends at a boundary as it transmits into a new medium
56. The amount a wave refracts depens on the type of wave, the frequency of the wave, and the material it is moving into.
57. Reflection happens when a wave bounces off of a boundary between two materials.
58. Reflection depends on the type of wave, the wave's frequency, and the material.
59. Absorption happens when a wave loses energy as it transmits into a material. This can happen in a medium or at a boundary between two materials.
60. When a wave is absorbed by a material, its energy turns into another form of energy, such as thermal or electrical energy.
61. Information can be stored in digital or analog form. Digital information is made from a certain set of values, or digits. Analog information is made from possibilities within a range.
62. Information in waves can be transmitted with either digital or analog signals using wave properties like frequency or amplitude.
63. Digital signals are more reliable because interference or noise can be easily removed from the receives signal. However, every change within an analog signal contains some information, so interference or noise can be almost impossible to remove.
1. A biotic factor is a living organism. An abiotic factor is a non-living part of the environment.
2. The atmosphere is all the gases in the air that surround Earth.
3. The biosphere is all living organisms
4. The geosphere is the interior and surface of the Earth, including rocks, continents, and the ocean floor.
5. The hydrosphere is all saltwater and freshwater (including precipitation), underground water, and ice.
6. The biosphere is made up of several biomes. Biomes are regions defined by specific abiotic factors to which plants, animals, and other organisms are well-adapted
7. Terrestrial biomed are land-based biomes and are defined by their climate (temperature and precipitation). Aquatic biomes are water-based biomes and are defined by their water depth and salinity (saltiness of water)
8. Some biomes can be very small. A microbiome is a group of microbes (such as bacteria) that naturally live on or within another organism.
9. Abiotic factors such as temperature and precipitation vary in relation to latitude. Latitude describes how far north and south an area is from the equator. Latitude is measured in degrees, which ranges from 0° at the equator to 90°N (north) at the North Pole and 90°S (south) at the South Pole.
10. Temperature tends to decrease with latitude. Equatorial regions tend to be warmer and polar regions tend to be cooler.
11. Precipitation also tends to decrease with latitude. Temperature affects the amount of water vapor that air can hold; warm air holds more water vapor than cold air. This causes equatorial regions to receive more precipitation than polar regions.
12. Latitude can explain global trends in the distribution and number of species. The number of different species in an area is known as species richness.
13. Species richness tends to be highest at low latitudes near the equator. On the other hand, species richness tends to be lowest at high latitudes toward the poles.
14. In terrestrial environments, elevation, temperature, and precipitation are important abiotic factors. Both temperature and precipitation change with elevation. As elevation increases, temperatures become cooler and precipitation increases.
15. In aquatic environments, water depth, temperature, sunligh, and dissolved oxygen are important abiotic factors. Both temperature and sunlight change with water depth. As water depth increases, temperatures become cooler and sunlight decreases
16. Abiotic factors determine where an organism can survive and live. This is evident in the organism's range, which refers to the geographic area where an organism occur throughout its lifetime.
17. Some abiotic factors form physical barriers that restrict where an organism can be found and where it can go.
18. An organism's tolerance is its ability to survive variation in abiotic factors, such as changes in temperature or sunlight. Each organism has a tolerance range for every abiotic factor in its environment.
19. Optimal conditions are those within an organism's tolerance range. When conditions are optimal, an organism can survive and reproduce successfully.
20. Stressful conditions are those close to an organism's lower and upper limits of tolerance. When conditions are stressful, an organism may survive, but it will likely produce fewer or no offspring.
21. Extreme conditions are those beyond an organism's limits of tolerance. When conditions are extreme, an organism will not survive.
22. A population's density refers to the number of individuals within a specific area.
23. A population can also show different types of dispersion, which describes how individuals are spread throughout their habitat.
24. Clumped dispersion occurs when many individuals are packed closely together into groups (ex. school of fish)
25. Uniform dispersion occurs when individuals are spaced evenly from one another (ex. gannet nests in a breeding colony)
26. Random dispersion occurs when individuals have an unpredictable distribution throughout their habitat.
27. Exponential growth occurs when a population grows exponentially; the larger the population becomes, the faster it grows. Exponential growth usually happens under optimal environmental conditions with plentiful resources. Populations that have exponential growth produced a J-shaped curve.
28. Logistic growth occurs when a population grows exponentially at first, but then slows. As the population's growth slows, its size begin to level off. Logistic growth usually occurs as resources become scarce and competition increases. Population that have logistic growth produce an S-shaped curve.
29. Exponential and logistic growth are mathematical models that are useful for describing how populations change over time. However, like all models, they have limitations. For one, population cannot have indefinite exponential growth because resources are limited in natural systems.
30. In addition, population models only describe a population's growth over a specific period of time. For example, a population model can be used to show how a population has changed over the last 5 or 500 years.
31. Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum population size of a species that a particular environment can support.
32. Limiting factors are abiotic and biotic factors that control population growth.
33. Density-independent factors limit growth regardless of a population's density. This factors include catastrophic events such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, fires, droughts, floods, tsunamis, and hurricanes.
34. Density-dependent factors affect growth in relation to a population's density. Density-dependent factors include competition, predation, herbivory, disease, parasitism, and stress (from overcrowding)
35. A species' life history describes its lifespan, behavior, and reproductive strategy.
36. In general, species with r-selected traits have a short lifespan and produce many offspring that require little to no parental care. (exponential growth)
37. In general, species with K-selected traits are long-lived and tend to produce fewer offspring that require increased parental care. (logistic growth)
38. No species is completely an r-selected or a K-selected species.
39. Species that have more r-selected traits often occur in environments with variable or unstable conditions.
40. Species that have more K-selected traits are often found in environments with relatively stable conditions.
41. Competition occurs when individuals (from the same or different species compete directly or indirectly for thr same limited resources. Competition negatively affects all individuals involved and may harm their survival and/or reproduction.
42. Predation involves one organism (the predator) that kills and eats another organism (the prey)
43. Many predators are also scavengers and consume the remains of dead organisms.
44. Similar to predation, herbivory occurs when a non-plant species feeds on a plant species.
45. Symbioses are close, long-term associations between two or more species.
46. Mutualism occurs when all species involved benefit from a symbiotic association.
47. Some species participate in facultive mutualism, whereby they benefit from a symbiotic association with another species but are not dependent on it.
48. Other species are involved in obligate mutualism, which means their survival is dependent on their symbiotic association with another species.
49. Symbioses also includes parasitism, which parasites benefited from the interaction but the host doesn't. And, cmmensalism, which can be beneficial or harmful.
50. When interactions occur between individuals of the same species, they are called intraspecific interactions.
51. When interactions occur between individuals of different species, they are called interspecific interactions.
52. Intraspecific competition tends to increase with population density. This is because at high population densities there are more individuals competing for the same amount of limited resources. So, an increase in intraspecific competition can slow population growth.
53. Resource partitioning is what happens when species are able to share the same resources.
54. Robert Hooke publishes "Micrographia" in 1665. He observes lice, fleas, and also corks. During his observation, he notices that there are little squares in a cork and called it cells.
55. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek - a Dutch lens crafter. He directly observe sperm, and also protist, which he calls "animalcules".
56. In 1830's, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, are the founders of modern cell theory. Their theory consists of: 1. All life is composed of 1 or more cells 2. Cell is basic unit of life
57. In the mid-eighteen hundredth, Robert Remak established the idea that all cells come from other cells. Rudolph Virchow plagiarized this idea from Robert Remak.
58. Cell biology is an area of study that focuses on cells, how it functions, its stuctures and behavior.
59. Cell diameter are typically measured in micrometers, and a cell's internal structures are often measured in nanometers.
60. Microscopes are the most important tool for cell biologist, it capture images called micrographs.
61. Ligth microscope can magnify objects up to 1,000 times their actual size by shining light through a specimen and also staining it with chemical dye. This can be used to visualize living cells.
62. A fluorescent microscope is a type of light microscope thag creates brightly-colored images. This microscope is used to observe the roles of specific cell components and to locate specific proteins in the cell.
63. Electron microscope can visualize details at a much smaller scale than light microscope, but, it can only be used when observing non-living things.
64. The two types of electron microscopes are scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). SEM produces 3D images that allows the observer to see the overall shape and surface features of the cells (outside), while TEM are used to visualize thin cross sections, allowing the observer to detailed images of organelles (inside).
65. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have plasma membrane, genetic material in the form of DNA, ribosomes, cytosol.
66. Eukaryotic cells (10 to 100 micrometers) tend to be 10 times larger than prokaryotic cells (1 to 10 micrometers) Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells tend to have single strand of DNA, often in a loop, located in nucleoid. While, eukaryotic cells have multiple, linear, DNA chromosomes that are coiled up and packaged in the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound organelles like mitochondria and include both unicellular and multicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells have cell walls but eukaryotic cells can or cannot have cell walls. Additionally, prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually, while eukaryotic cells can reproduce asexually and sexually.
67. Cytosol plus everything in the cell is called cytoplasm
68. Bacteria, and archaea (which are typically found in extreme environments, such as hot springs) are prokaryotes. Animals, plants, fungi, and protis are eukaryotes
69. Mitochondria have its own DNA and those DNA comes from our mother.
70. The plasma membrane is a bi-layer structure containing phospholipids and proteins. It controls what goes in an out of the cell.
71. The cytosol is the gel-like, water based fluid the fills the space inside the cell. This is where many of the chemical reactions occur.
72. The cytoskeleton holds everything in place, it is also plays a huge role in cell division as it can change shape, destroyed, and rebuild.
73. Molecules are called secreted when they are being transported out of the cell.
74. The rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) is a series of connected membranes with ribosomes attached to the outer surface. Proteins made by these ribosomes are fed into the rough ER where they receive chemical modifications.
75. The smooth ER looks like rough ER without the ribosomes attached. It helps build a variety of lipid (fat) molecules. It also helps detoxify drugs and poisons through chemical modification of these compounds.
76. The Golgi body is a set of disc-shaped membrane-bound sacs that receive molecules from the rough and smooth ER. This is where molecules are being packaged and made.
77. Vesicles are small, membrane-enclosed sacs that lookes like a circular remnant from the membranes of the ER, Golgi body, and plasma membrane. Vesicles carry substances between these cell parts, and play a key role in transporting substances within and out of the cell.
78. The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material in the form of DNA, which are organized into linear structures called chromosomes.
79. Ribosomes are cell parts that build protein molecules
80. Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis which captures energy and converting it to other forms of energy (plant cell and some protist)
81. Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration which releases the energy stored.
82. Plasma membrane, cytosol, and cytoskeleton helps maintin the structure of the cell.
83. Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, and vesicles are responsible in protein modification and transport.
84. Nucleus and ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
85. Chloroplasts and mitochondria helps in capturing and releasing energy.
86. Stem cells are unspecialized cells that have the ability to differentiate into specialized cells but can also have self renewal or that they can divide many times and remain unspecialized.
87. Totipotent cells can turn into any kind of cell and can create a whole organism, including extra parts like the placenta. Pluripotent cells can become many types of cells but can’t make a whole organism by themselves. In short, totipotent = all cells + whole organism, pluripotent = most cells but not whole organism.
88. Multipotent cells are more specialized, only able to develop into specific types within a certain tissue or organ.
89. Cellular differentiation is the process where unspecialized cells turned into specialized cells
90. Potency describes the ability of stem cells to differentiate into specialized cells.
91. Stem cells are found in embryos.
92. There are four types of tissue in the human body: muscle, nervous, epithelial, and connective.
93. Muscle tissues can contract (or shorten) and relax, which allows it to power nearly all types of movement in the body. Muscle tissue is made up of muscle cells which are often called muscle fibers.
94. There are three different types of muscle tissue: smooth, skeletal, and cardiac.
95. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of digestive tract and blood vessels. It's responsible for involuntary movements such as the movement of food through the digestive tract.
96. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones via tendons. It carries out voluntary movements, such as walking, swimming, or dancing.
97. Cardiac muscle is in the heart and is responsible for pumping blood through the body.
98. Nervous tissue is involved in sensing stimuli (external and internal cues). It is also responsible for processing and transmitting information. Nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells (neurons) and support cells called glia.
99. Neurons are the basic functional unit of the nervous system. They generate electrical signals that allow the neurons to convey information very rapidly across long distances.
100. Glia (or glial cells) is a catch-all term for any cells in the nervous system that aren't neurons. These cells hold neurons in place, provide neurons with nutrients and oxygen, and destroy pathogens. or an area of reduced rainfall behind the range. In a rain shadow, the climate is warmer and drier compared to the climate on the other side of the range.
101. Epithelial tissue helps protect the body from pathogens, injury, and water loss. It consists of tightly packed sheets of cells that cover surfaces and line body cavities. (ex. outer layer of skin and lining of the intestine). Epithelial tissue is made up of epithelial cells, which have a polarized structure.
102. Epithelial cells are polarized, meaning that they have a top and a bottom side. The apical (top) side of an epithelial cell have finger-like structures that faces the inside of a cavity or the outside of the body and is usually exposed to fluid or air. The basal (bottom) side faces underlying cells.
103. Connective tissues supports and connects other tissues. It consists of cells suspended in an extracellular matrix, which is a network or proteins and other molecules that surround and support cells. (ex. bones, adipose (fat) tissue, and blood cells)
104. The thorax is the region of the body between the neck and the abdomen, and it houses vital organs, including the heart and lungs. It is enclosed by the rib cage and is crucial for respiratory and circulatory functions.
105. Circulatory system is the body system responsible for carrying blood, nutrients, and waste throughout the body.
106. Cardiac is related to the heart.
107. Pulmonary is related to the lungs.
108. Artery is a blood vessel that moves blood away from the heart into the capillaries to provide oxygen
109. Vein is a blood vessel that moves blood toward the heart.
110. Aorta is the major artery that carries blood to the systemic circulatory system
111. Capillary is the small blood vessel that allows nutrient exchange.
112. Atrium is the upper chamber of the heart that receives blood while ventricle it the lower chamber of the heart that pump the blood
113. The circulatory system includes the blood, blood vessels, and the heart that supplies oxygen and nutrients, and removes waste in the body
114. Blood from the heart is pumped throughout the body using blood vessels
115. It is true most of the time arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood. However, the pulmonary veins and arteries are an exception to this rule. Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood toward the heart and the pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood away from the heart.
116. Blood is always red, it does appear blue on our skin but that is because of how tissues absorbs light and our eyes see color. More oxygen makes brighter red blood while less make it darker
117. Respiratory system is the body system responsible for gas exchange.
118. Pharynx is the tube connected the nose/mouth to the esophagus
119. Larynx (voice box), also called adam's apple, is the tube forming a passage between the pharynx and trachea
120. Trachea is the tube connecting the larynx to the bronchi of the lungs
121. Bronchi are the brances of tissue stemming fron the trachea
122. Bronchiole is the airway that extends from the bronchus, could be as small as the size of a hair
123. Alveoli is the tiny air sacs at the end of each bronchial. There are about 600 million in the lungs and has a mesh-like cover called capillaries that makes the absorption of oxygen into the blood possible.
124. Diaphragm is a thoracic muscle that lays beneath the lungs and aids in inhalition/exhalation, in contracts when we breath in and relaxes when we breath out
125. Oxygen is not the only gas we breath in.
126. The respiratory system works directly with the circulatory system to provide oxygen to the body.
127. The left lung has 2 lobes (upper and lower) and has a cardiac notch, while the right lung has 3 lobes (upper, middle, and lower)
128. The branching system of airways is called the "bronchial tree"
129. The digestive system is the body system that converts food into energy and nutrients to fuel the body.
130. Chemical digestion is the breaking down of food using chemical agents, such as enzymes and bile
131. Mechanical digestion is the breaking down of food by physical means, such as chewing.
132. Absorption is the process by which nutrients pass through the walls of the digestive system into the blood
133. Excretory system is the body systen that removes metabolic wastes from the body
134. Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body
135. The food is chewed and mixed with saliva, that has a digestive juice called amylase that is secreted by the salivary glands, in the mouth. After, it moves down the esophagus
136. Then it reaches the stomach where it is churned and kills the bacteria with the aid of hydrochloric acid.
137. The process in the stomach makes the food into a chyme, a thick, semi-liquid mixture of partially digested food that includes stomach acids and enzymes. An enzyme called pepsin breaks down most of the protein in the food.
138. Then it is tranported into the small intestine where it receives secretion from the liver that makes bile juice and released from the gallbladder, and pancreas that releases pancreatic juice. The digested food is then passed into the blood vessels with the help of villi, a finger like projections in the small intestine that have extensive networks of blood vessels.
139. It is then passed into the large intestine that absorbs excess water and salts
140. The excretory system removes metabolic wastes from the body, its major organs are the kidneys, a pair of bean-shapes organs located below the liver.
141. Accessory organs that helps with digestion are salivary glands that moisten food and begin chemical digestion of starches, liver that created bile for fat digestion, detoxifies blood, processes absorbed vitamins, gallbladder that stores the bile produced by the liver, and pancreas that secretes pancreatic juices to help digestion of proteins and carbohydrates
142. There are several other organs that are also involved in excretion, including: the skin, which removes excess water and salt via sweat, lungs which exhale carbon dioxide, and liver which breaks down toxic substances in the blood and convert nitrogenous waste into urea
143. The urinary tract filters waste and water form the blood and eliminates them from the body. The kidneys produce a waste called urine using special functional units called nephrons. The urine excretion takes place in three steps: 1. filtration - blood enters a nephron, which filters out impurities 2. reabsorption - the impurities move through tubules, while the rest of the blood is reabsorbed through capillary walls into the blood 3. excretion - urine is transported from the kidneys through the ureters and into the urinary bladder.
144. Urine is a product of the excretory system not the digestive system
145. The small intestine is longer that the large intestine. The intestines are named for their diameters, not their lengths.
146. Nervous system - collect, process, and responds to information using electrical signals
147. Neuron - A nerve cell; basic unit of nervous system
148. Glial - A cell that protects and supports neurons
149. Central nervous system - part of nervous system containing the brain and spinal cords (process information from PNS)
150. Peripheral nervous system - part of nervous system that contains associated nerve that is not part of the brain or spinal cord (provide sensory information)
151. Endocrine system - regulates cells and organs using chemical substance like hormones
152. Hormones - chemical messenger that acts as regulatory substance
153. Gland - secretes substances like hormones
154. Sensory neurons - carry impulses from sense organs such as eyes and ears
155. Motor neurons - carry impulses to muscles and glands
156. Interneurons - transfer signals from sensory and motor neurons, as well as in between other neurons
157. The peripheral nervous system can be divided into two: somatic and automatic nervous system, somatic is voluntary while automatic is involuntary and can be categorized into two: sympathetic that trigger "fight-or-flight" and parasympathetic that is triggered during restful periods
158. The endocrine system, like the nervous system, is a regulating system there only difference is nervous system uses electric impulses whole endocrine system releases and produces hormones that control the actions of cells and organs
159. Common hormones and glands are 1. thyroid hormone, a gland produced in thyroid that regulates metabolism 2. adrenaline (epinephrine), a gland produced in adrenal gland, that involved in "fight or flight" response 3. cortisol, that is also released in adrenal gland, and is also involved in "fight or flight" response, regulates metabolism and immune responses 4. estrogen, which are produced by the ovaries, that is responsible form sexual and reproductive development, mainly in women 5. testosterone, that is produced in testes or someones in adrenal glands or ovaries, that has the same role as estrogen but mostly in men 6. insulin, which is produced in the pancreas, that is responsible for blood sugar regulation and fat storage 7. glucagon, which are also found in the pancreas and is also responsible for blood sugar regulation.
160. Insulin is released when blood sugar is high and glucagon is released when blood sugar drops
161. The hindbrain includes medulla, pons, and cerebellum
162. The medulla and pons regulates breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate. Additionally, the pons coordinates signals with this area to the rest of the brain
163. The cerebellum is responsible form balance and movement coordination
164. The midbrain is responsible for alertness, sleep/wake cycle, and motor activity
165. The forebrain includes cerebrum which is split into two: left and right. The left part of the cerebrum controls the right side of the body and the left side controls the right side of the body. It also includes the thalamus which is involve with sensory and motor information and hypothalamus which has a major control of the endocrine system
166. General neuron structure includes, the cell body that have the nucleus and organelles, a branched structures called dendrites is where you receive signals, and the axon, a fiber where a signal is carried away to some other cells; the synapse is the junction area where the neuron communicates with other cells.
167. Homeostasis is the process by which living organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions. This includes regulating factors such as temperature, pH, hydration, and nutrient levels. Key systems involved in homeostasis include the nervous and endocrine systems, which help coordinate responses to keep the internal environment balanced and functioning optimally.
168. The resting potential of a neuron is more negative than its surrounding, it is around -70mv (milivolts)
169. Musculoskeletal system is the body system that provides support, stability, shape, and movement to the body
170. Joint is the point at which two (or more) bones meet
171. Cartilage is the soft connective tissue found between joints
172. Ligaments are connective tissue that attaches bone to bone at a joint
173. Tendons are connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone
174. Voluntary muscle is the muscle that can be consciously controlled
175. Involuntary muscle is the muscle that is controlled by the autonomic nervous system (not consciouslu controlled
176. Striated muscle is the muscle tissue that has a striped appearance due to its fiber composition
177. An adult human generally has 206 bones.
178. Acial skeleton includes the bones in the skull, in your ears which are called the ossicles, in your throat called the hyoid, vertebral column, and the ribcage. Appendicular skeleton includes the bones in the arm and hands, shoulder girdle, legs and feet, and pelvic girdle
179. There are five shapes of bone: 1. long bone - long and cylinder shaped bone that moved by muscle contraction, examples of this are femur, tibia, and fibula in the legs, humerus, ulna, and radius in the arms, metacarpals and phalanges in the hands, and metatarsals and phalanges in the feet. 2. short bone - cube shaped and moved by muscle contraction, it offers stability. Examples of this are carpals in the wrist and tarsals in the ankle. 3. sesamoid bones - like sesame seed, round shaped bone that is great about handling pressure. An example of this is the patella. 4. flat bones - not flat and usually curved and thin. Examples of this are skull, also known as cranial bones and should blade also known as scapulae bones. 5. irregular bones - does not have a distinct shape and is protective, an example is the vertebrae
180. There are two types of bone tissue: 1. compact bone tissue - the hard outer layer that has red marrow where blood (red and white) cells and platelets are made. 2. spongy bone tissue - where bone/yellow marrow can be found that stores fat.
181. The cells involved with bone and cartillage are: 1. osteoblast - cells that make bones and mature into osteocytes that maintain bone structure. 2. osteoclasts - cells that break down bone structure, has a lot of lysosomes, and is responsible for the 5-10% annual bone remodelling.
182. Chondroblasts makes the connective tissue called cartilage. It can mature into chondrocytes that maintain and make up the cartillage.
183. Cartilage supports bone and is the template for bone placement.
184. Eventually, bones replaces most, but not all, cartilage.
185. When a bone breaks it creates a fracture hematoma. Osteoblasts and chondrocytes build a callus, internal, which is made out of cartillage, and external, which are a mix of bones and cartillage. Then, osteoclasts removes the damaged bones and osteoblasts build new bones
186. Reproductive system is the body system that includes our sex organs and the brain
187. The sex organs in female are the breasts, ovary, and uterus. In male, the penis and testes
188. Testosterone is the sex hormone in male. Estrogen and progesterone are the sex hormones in female
189. Gamete is a reproductive sex cell. In males, sperm; in females, eggs
190. The reproductive system is controlled by the brain. The hypothalamus releases the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GNRH) that affects another part of the brain, the anteriorpituitory that releases lutenizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone that affects the male and femal sex organs.
191. Zygote - first cell in a organism that has the genetic material of both parent
192. Gestation is the development of fetus into a baby
193. Puberty is the process during which adolescents reach sexual and reproductive maturity
194. Testes are the male reproductive gland that produces sperm and male hormones
195. Ovaries are the female reproductive gland that produces eggs and female hormones
196. Menstrual cycle is the pattern of events in females involving the development and release of an egg
197. Fertilization is the process in sexual reproduction in which a male gamete and female gamete fuse to form a new cell
198. Fallopian tubes or oviducts transports egg to uterus and is where the egg is fertilized
199. Uterus supports a developing embryo
200. Cervix allows passage between the uterus and the vagina
201. Vaguna receives penis during intercourse, acts as birth canal, passes menstrual flow
202. Breasts produce and deliver milk
203. There are about 6-7 million of potential cells present in a 20-week gestation fetus that decline to 1-2 million at birth and declines again from 300,000 - 500,000 at puberty up until 1,000 at menopause
204. One egg cell is released per month, the ovaries takes turn to release it
205. Egg cells divide through mitosis and go through meiosis
206. The egg has a diamater of about 110 to 120 micrometer that contains a haploid set of chromosomes
207. Scrotum supports testes and regulates their temperature. The sperm development requires a temperature of 1 - 8°C less than the body temperature.
208. Seminal vesicle contribute fluids to semen production. The semen contains nutrients and enzymes like fructose, citric acid, and acid phosphatase enzyme that serve to nourish, protect, and activate the sperm
209. Prostate gland secretes prostate fluid and aids in ejaculation
210. Epididymis stores mature sperm
211. The penis contains an erectile tissue
212. The sperm has a head with a diamater of about 2 - 5 micrometer
213. Only females are born with reproductive sex cells. Females are born with immature eggs already in their ovaries. Males only produce sperm after reaching puberty
214. Pathogen - a disease-causing organism, including bacteria, viruses, and parasitic worms
215. Antigen is what the immune system recognizes as foreign to the body
216. Innate immune - non-specific immune system
217. Adaptive immune system - antigen-specific immine system
218. Antibody - specialized Y-shaped protein that tags antigens for destruction
219. B cells are white blood cells that can make antibodies
220. T cells are white blood cells that destroys infected cell. It does this by releasing signals that causes the infected cell to do apoptosis, a type of self destruction which is done by releasing a protein called perforin that causes holes in the cell membrane
221. Humoral immunity - a type of adaptive immune defense depending on the action of antibodies
222. Cell-mediated immunity - a type of adaptive immune defense in which foreign cells (antigens) are destroyed by T cells
223. Virus are non-living particle that contains protein and DNA/RNA that can infect a living cell
224. Vaccine are a killed or weakend form of a pathogen that produces immunity when injected into the body
225. Antibiotics are substances that destro bacteria
226. Memory cells stores memory of pathogens and is part of the humoral and cell mediated response
227. Helper T cell helps activate other white blood cells
228. Physiological responses - internal changes our bodies carry out unconsciously. (ex. sweating)
229. Behavioral responses - actions we carry out consciously in response to needs. (ex. find shade)
230. Homeostasis - tendency to maintain internal conditions despite changes in external conditions
231. Ectotherm means cold-blooded while endotherm means warm-blooded
232. When you are hot, your blood vessels widens. When you are cold, your blood vessels constrict.
233. Negative feedback loop - a variable triggers a counteracting response in order to come back to normal
234. Negative feedback loop is going on inside your blood sugar, a hormone called insulin is released when your blood sugar increases. On the other side, when your blood sugar decreases, a hormone called glucagon is released
235. Positive feedback loop - intensify the variable. Example of positive feedback loop is childbirth
236. Sensor is a body component that monitors internal and external conditions, detecting stimuli
237. Control center is an area that receives and processes signals about the body, then coordinates a response
238. Effector is a body component that carries out the response to a stimulus