Psychology Exam 2 Notes

Exam 2 Final Review Session

• Date and Time: Wednesday (4/2) from 7-8pm

• Location: Woodruff Library Room 312

Brain Organization

Historic Brain and "Animal Spirits"

• Galen (130-200 AD) - Introduced the concept of "animal spirits," which he believed were generated by the heart. These spirits were thought to flow through the ventricles of the brain and were associated with essential functions such as movement and sensation. At that time, the ventricles were regarded as the seat of the soul, reflecting the belief in their central importance to mental functioning.

• Rene Descartes (1596-1650) - A pivotal figure in philosophy and science, Descartes proposed that reflexes were governed by the release of animal spirits from the brain's ventricles into the nerves, allowing for quick reactions to stimuli. He also linked voluntary behavior to the soul, which he posited was connected to the body through the pineal gland, suggesting a dualistic view of mind and body. This laid groundwork for future discourse on consciousness and psychology.

Phrenology and the Cerebral Cortex

• Phrenology (Franz Gall 1758-1828) - This theory posited that specific areas of the brain control different mental faculties and that larger areas of the brain corresponded to better functioning in those faculties. Gall's claim was that the bumps on the skull could indicate a person's cognitive abilities, a notion that was eventually discredited but paved the way for the exploration of brain localization.

• Cerebral Cortex Functions - The brain's outer layer, composed of two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum, plays a crucial role in managing complex perceptual tasks, emotional regulation, and higher cognitive functions. It is estimated to contain around 20-23 billion neurons, highlighting its significance in advanced brain operations.

Cerebral Lobes and Their Functions

• Occipital Lobe: Primarily responsible for visual processing, this lobe contains the visual cortex, where the brain interprets visual information received from the eyes, facilitating our sense of sight.

• Parietal Lobe: This lobe processes sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain, housing the sensory cortex that enables spatial awareness and guidance of movements.

• Temporal Lobe: Involved in auditory processing, the temporal lobe is home to Wernicke's area, which is critical for language comprehension, as well as areas vital for memory formation, particularly surrounding the hippocampus.

• Frontal Lobe: Known for its role in executive functions, the frontal lobe is crucial for planning, judgment, reasoning, and impulse control. It also contains the motor cortex, which directs voluntary movements, emphasizing its role in behavior and decision-making.

Sensory and Motor Cortices

• Sensory Cortex - Located in the parietal lobe, this region features a topographically organized representation of the body known as the homunculus, with larger areas allocated to more sensitive regions such as the lips and fingers, crucial for integrating sensory input.

• Motor Cortex - Encased within the frontal lobe, the motor cortex is also topographically organized and has larger regions designated to areas requiring fine motor skills, such as the hands and face, highlighting its functional specialization in controlling voluntary muscle movement.

Basal Ganglia and Limbic System

• Basal Ganglia: This group of nuclei plays a fundamental role in directing intentional movement and forming habits by facilitating smooth, controlled movements and action planning.

• Limbic System: Comprising structures such as the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala, the limbic system is crucial for emotional regulation, motivation, and memory consolidation, demonstrating its involvement in both emotional experiences and learning processes.

Emotions and Their Adaptivity

• The Nature of Emotion: Emotions form a physiological and psychological component that can be adaptive, for instance, triggering the fight or flight response in danger, yet may also lead to maladaptive behaviors, such as substance abuse when mismanaged.

• Amygdala's Role: Central to processing emotional responses, the amygdala is particularly notorious for its involvement in fear and aggression, underpinning many survival-related emotional reactions.

Brainstem Functions

• Pons: A crucial brainstem structure involved in regulating sleep, respiration, and various reflex actions, ensuring proper coordination between body states and behaviors.

• Medulla: This structure controls vital autonomic functions such as heartbeat and breathing, underscoring its importance in sustaining life.

• Reticular Formation: Regulates alertness and sleep-wake cycles, playing a pivotal role in consciousness and attention.

Hormones and the Endocrine System

Hormonal Communication

• Hormones: Characterized by their slow-moving and long-lasting effects, hormones travel through the bloodstream to reach their target sites, controlling a vast range of physiological processes.

• Neurons: Contrasting hormones, neurons operate with fast-acting, localized effects that are typically brief, providing rapid responses to stimuli.

Overview of the Endocrine System

• The endocrine system is made up of various glands including the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands, each responsible for producing specific hormones that regulate numerous bodily functions..

• Pituitary Gland: Often referred to as the master gland, it regulates other glands throughout the body and is involved in many physiological processes, including growth and metabolism.

Hormonal Regulation of Behavior

• Hormones controlled by the hypothalamus play key roles in regulating a host of behaviors, particularly those related to stress responses via the HPA axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis), which governs the body's reaction to stressors.