Chap 3: Russian Autocracy and Reform in the 19th Century

Autocracy of Alexander II and Alexander III

Introduction

  • Post-accension sentiments in Russian society were optimistic due to the initial reforms by Alexander II, aimed at transforming the state.
  • This optimism was short-lived due to events such as assassination attempts on the Tsar, leading to a shift towards repression.

Reforms and Their Repression

  • Initial Reforms: Various reforms introduced by Alexander II but curtailed after 1866.
  • Assassination Attempts: A decade of attempts on Alexander II's life led to increasing paranoia and repressive measures.

Key Assassination Attempts

  • 1866: Dmitry Korozov unsuccessfully shot at Alexander II.
  • 1867: Antoni Verozowski fired at Alexander's carriage; missed and injured others.
  • 1879: Multiple attempts by Alexander Seloviev and bombs in the Winter Palace failed.
  • 1880: A mine explosion in the Winter Palace killing 12 but the Tsar survived due to a late arrival.

Impact of Assassination Attempts

  • Resulted in a more aloof and reactionary Tsar, distancing from liberal reforms.
  • Influenced by the reactionaries who feared Western liberal ideas and ethnic diversity's impact on Russia's strength.
  • Shift towards appointing conservative officials in governing bodies (e.g., Dmitry Tolstoy as Minister of Education).

Educational Reforms

  • Dmitry Tolstoy's Policies: Repressive educational reforms aimed at combatting Western liberalism involved:
    • Reducing educational freedom and church regaining authority over rural schools.
    • Classical curricula dominated, eliminating critical thought subjects.
    • Restrictions on student organization and activities; many students pursued education abroad.

Law and Policing Changes

  • Intensified police activity under Pyotr Shovalov and the establishment of a stringent judicial system.
  • Increased authoritarian practices included:
    • Establishment of military courts and the use of show trials for political dissidents.
    • Significant surveillance and power vested in the Okhrana to control revolutionary activities.

Show Trials

  • Trials of accused revolutionaries often backfired, generating sympathy and amplifying revolutionary ideas in the press.

Loris Melikov's Proposals

  • Amid political unrest and crises, elements of democratic consultation were introduced but ultimately ignored or abandoned.
  • Attempted reforms such as lifting the salt tax and easing censorship were short-lived and ineffective.

The Assassination of Alexander II

  • On March 13, 1881, Alexander II was assassinated by the People's Will after a series of failed previous attempts, catalyzing reactions from Alexander III.

Reign of Alexander III

  • Adopted a stance of 'unshakable autocracy', firmly rooted in a belief of divinely sanctioned leadership.
  • His response to his father's assassination included public executions of conspirators and repressive governance.

Key Figures Influencing Alexander III

  • Konstantin Pobedonostsev: Tutor to Alexander III who influenced his autocratic views and advocacy for nationalism.
  • Alexander III's marriage to Dagmar Maria Fyodorovna and family dynamics shaped his reign and policy decisions.

Administrative Changes under Alexander III

Local Government

  • Land captains with extensive powers undermined local governance, effectively centralizing authority back to the Tsarist state.
  • Changes aimed to limit the peasant vote and redirect focus from politics to social welfare initiatives.

Changes in Policing and Surveillance

  • The Okhrana's extensive powers and tactics of surveillance created an oppressive environment, with unchecked authority over citizens.

Educational and Censorship Reforms

  • Educational policies increasingly controlled by the state, leading to restrictions on academic freedom and representation for women in higher education.
  • Censorship became stricter, with publications monitored, and significant penalties for dissent in artistic and educational contexts.

Extent and Impact of Counter-Reforms

  • Although some reforms persisted, many were setbacks to Alexander II's initial changes, including reversal of judicial reforms and increased state oppression.
  • Limited improvements such as the abolishment of the poll tax were primarily seen as moves to quell potential uprisings.