Untitled Notes

Romanticism began to fade in Europe as an intellectual and stylistic trend after 1848, gradually being replaced by Realism.
Focus shifted towards understanding nature, society, and human behavior through physical, physiological, empirical, and scientific means.
Knowledge was increasingly built on hard facts rather than feelings.

Definition: Positivism refers to a mindset characterized by pragmatism and materialism that emerged in the 1840s, focusing on observable facts and tested ideas.
- Coined by French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857), who began writing Positive Philosophy in 1830, advocating for social progress grounded in science.
- Established sociology as a scientific approach to studying society.

During the 1830s and 1840s, pamphlets called physiologies gained popularity.
- Short essays analyzing various niches of French society, including specific professions (e.g., lawyer, nun) to more obscure categories (e.g., suburban gardener, woman of thirty).
- Provided a means to understand societal transformations amidst rapid industrialization and urbanization.

Realism in the arts, influenced by Positivism, involved the unidealized portrayal of life.
- Charles Baudelaire (1846) called for an art reflecting modern life.
- By the 1850s, réalisme became the cry of new art and literature, emphasizing the depiction of social changes.
Artists, rather than romanticizing life, presented it bluntly, portraying a range of societal experiences from impoverished peasants to the leisure activities of the bourgeoisie.

Evolved from Realism, Impressionism documented social changes, particularly in the suburbs of Paris.
- Demonstrated an empirical approach, recording what artists perceived before their eyes, capturing impermanence through shimmering, loose brushwork.
The advent of Modernism emerged as a by-product of Impressionist techniques, challenging the representational aspects through abstraction.
The term avant-garde for avant-garde artists signified the radical newness of their works, often understood by a limited audience, disconnecting from the general public.

Realism coincided with the wider socio-political upheavals of the European Revolution of 1848.
  - France's Revolution involved violent uprisings, leading to widespread unrest across Europe but ultimately resulted in conservative backlashes.
  - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (1808–1873) emerged as president of the Second Republic, later declaring himself Emperor Napoleon III.
  - His reign (1852–1870) experienced significant industrial growth, altering social dynamics and contributing to the rise of the bourgeoisie.
  - Increased wealth and leisure time fostered diverse social activities in urban environments (e.g., cafés, theaters, parks).

Gustave Courbet (1819–1877) epitomized Realism as a politically-charged style championing socialist ideals and laborers.
- Origin: Hailing from Ornans, he moved to Paris and became a central figure in Left Bank arts.
- Influenced by Champfleury, who promoted folk art and realism, Courbet sought to represent ordinary life, notably through works like Burial at Ornans (1850).

This painting depicted a provincial funeral, reflecting the social dynamics of Ornans without idealization.
  - Composition details:
    - Lacked traditional compositional structures, offering a democratic representation where all figures shared equal importance.
    - Conveys social rituals and class distinctions without narrative clarity.
Positioned common life events on par with historically significant events, questioning traditional genre hierarchy.

Courbet’s challenge to bourgeois taste resonated with artists like Édouard Manet (1832–1883) and Edgar Degas (1834–1917), who explored urban themes and leisure classes.
- Manet's Luncheon on the Grass (1863): A crossover work igniting scandal with its portrayal of nakedness amid contemporary figures.
- Signified a rejection of classical nudes and highlighted contrasting representations in art versus traditional academic ideals.

Manet's style: Although criticized for seeming unfinished, it initiated Modernist conventions emphasizing new abstract qualities.
Edgar Degas: Merged Manet's techniques to depict modern Paris using fragmentary and innovative compositions, like The Orchestra of the Paris Opéra (1868–69), showcasing energy and surprise in urban life.

Degas and other artists were impacted by the aesthetic forms of Japanese prints (Japonisme) which introduced new visual dynamics and compositional experimentation to Western art.

Impressionists defined: Art that combined a sketchy finish with modern subjects.
- Record social evolution in urban France while also emphasizing fleeting moments, particularly focusing on leisure activities of the nouveaux riches and suburban transformation.

Claude Monet (1840–1926): Central figure in Impressionism known for plein air painting that captured light effects.
- Emphasized color theory reflecting contemporary scientific insights on color interactions.
Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919): Blurred lines between landscape and figures, presenting modern life’s vibrancy in works like Luncheon of the Boating Party (1880–81).
Mary Cassatt (1844–1926): Explored women’s roles through Impressionism, focusing on domestic scenes, reflective of the women's movement and societal norms.

British Realism emerged differently but was characterized by detailed naturalism driven by pubic social concerns reflective of the Industrial Revolution.
Influenced by figures like John Ruskin (1819–1900) and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (PRB), who sought truth and ethical engagement in art.

William Holman Hunt (1827–1910): His works were laden with moral lessons and spiritual messages through intense naturalism.
William Morris (1834–1896): Emphasized the importance of handmade art in the context of societal degradation by industrialization, giving birth to the Arts and Crafts movement.

Post-PRB artists like Dante Gabriel Rossetti embraced personal, emotive expression while subverting established norms.
James Whistler championed aesthetic beauty and emotional depth, distancing from documentary realism toward a subjective approach.

The Civil War in America marked significant contextual shifts which found reflection in artists like Thomas Eakins who adopted scientific realism.
Other American artists like Winslow Homer explored leisure through iconic, symbolic images.

Photography's introduction: Coincided with the emergence of a positivist, visual documentation era, initially serving to support realism.
Innovators like Daguerre and Talbot paved the way with notable techniques leading to wide usage and experimentation in photography.

Emergence of portraiture and views embodied the cultural shifts, offering insights into middle-class identity and experiences while presenting visual access to various subjects.

Pictorialism and combination printing explored the artistic boundaries of photography, blurring lines between painting and photography through manipulation of imagery and composition.