minimal pairs

1. first, understand the difference

example: the sounds /p/ and /b/ 

/p/ pat /b/ bat 

the words differ by just one sound, and their meanings change. therefore, /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in english. 

pat and bat are a minimal pair 

compare two pronunciations of /p/

[pʰ] pin 

[p] spin

in english, these are typically allophones of the same phoneme /p/ → the pronunciation changes, but the words meanings do not change because of this difference

2. how to tell if sounds are separate phonemes or allophones 

1. look for a minimal pair 

• can you find two words that differ in only the sound you are investigating, with different meanings?

• yes = strong evidence for separate phonemes 

• no = go to step 2 

2. check where the sound occurs

• do the two sounds appear in the same environment (the same position and surrounding sounds)?

  • if they occur in the same environment and replacing one with the other changes the word’s meaning, they are separate phonemes 

  • if they occur in different, predictable environments, they may be allophones of one phoneme 

3.look for a pronunciation rule 

• can you explain why one sound appears in one environment and the other appears somewhere else?

• yes = likely allophones in complementary distribution 

• if both pronunciations can occur in the same environment without changing meaning -> they may be free variants 

3. minimal pairs: your best piece of evidence

a minimal pair consists of two words that differ in exactly one phoneme in the same position, and have different meanings 

how to identify a minimal pair: (example)

• say the words aloud 

• compare the sounds: /k/ vs /g/

• check whether anything else changes. the vowel and final consonant stay the same 

• check the meaning. a coat is an item of clothing; a goat is an animal

• conclude that /k/ and /g/ are separate phonemes in english

4. allophones: different sounds, same phoneme 

allophones are different phonetic realisations of a single phoneme

they do not create a difference in word meaning in that language 

example:

[pʰ] aspirated  and [p] unaspirated 

both sounds belong to the phoneme /p/ in english, but the environment affects which pronunciation normally occurs 

 5. complementary distribution vs free variation 

1. complementary distribution 

• two sounds are in complementary distribution when they occur in different environments, so their usual distributions do not overlap 

• for english /p/: 

  • aspirated [pʰ] typically occurs at the beginning of a stressed syllable 

  • unaspirated [p] typically occurs after /s/ in a word like spin

• in these environments, the sounds are predictable 

• you would not normally pronounce the /p/ in pin exactly like the /p/ in spin in standard english

• they key idea is that the surrounding sounds or position help predict the pronunciation

2. free variation 

• two sounds are in free variation when either pronunciation can occur in the same environment without changing the word’s meaning 

• example:

  • some english speakers may pronounce the final /t/ in cat with different degrees of release, while the word retains the same meaning 

• free variation can depend on the speaker, accent, speaking style, and situation → doesn’t mean the pronunciations are equally common 

6. exam decision tree

given the two separate sounds

is there a minimal pair?

YES = separate phonemes (the sound difference changes meaning)

NO/NOT FOUND = check distribution (where do the sounds occur?)

likely allophones

If they are allophones, write a rule 

• Format: phoneme → [allophone] / environment 

7. Memorisation 

minimal pairs = separate phonemes 

• One sound differs, and the meaning changes 

allophones = same phonemes 

• Different pronunciations that do not distinguish meaning in that language

complementary distribution = different environments 

• the environment helps predict which allophone occurs 

free variation = same environment 

• either pronunciation can occur without changing meaning