CHAPTER 2- From Textbook

CHAPTER 2: Psychology as a Science

CHAPTER OUTLINE

• What Is a Science?

  • LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1: List two core beliefs of science, and describe the steps in the scientific method.

• Is Psychology a Science?

  • LEARNING OBJECTIVE 2: Compare and contrast psychology with other natural sciences, such as biology, chemistry, and physics, and with pseudosciences, such as astrology.

• How Do Psychologists Conduct Research?

  • LEARNING OBJECTIVE 3: List steps in the research process and key characteristics of descriptive and experimental psychological research methods.

• How Do Psychologists Make Sense of Research Results?

  • LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4: Describe what information is conveyed by statistics, including correlation coefficients, means, and standard deviations, and explain how psychologists draw conclusions about cause and effect.

• What Ethical Research Guidelines Do Psychologists Follow?

  • LEARNING OBJECTIVE 5: Describe what ethical steps psychologists take to protect the rights of human research participants.

What Is a Science?

• Core Beliefs of Science:

  • Two essential beliefs shared by all sciences:

  1. The universe operates according to certain natural laws capable of being discovered and tested.

  2. These laws can lead to predictions, which can be tested through experimentation.

• Scientific Method:

  • Involves logical reasoning processes derived from philosophy.

  • Deductive Reasoning:

  • Applying broad principles to specific situations (e.g., betting on a home team to win based on home-field advantage).

  • Inductive Reasoning:

  • Coming from specific observations to broader generalizations.

  • Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning:

  • A modern science approach starting with a hypothesis followed by controlled observations.

Is Psychology a Science?

• Comparison with Other Natural Sciences:

  • Psychology's transition from philosophy and mysticism into a natural science influenced by physiological studies and evolutionary theories (e.g., Darwin).

  • Differences in goals and influences compared to physical sciences.

  • Emphasis on psychological concepts such as Positive Psychology, focusing on aspects like happiness, which contrasts with traditional negative psychology approaches.

How Do Psychologists Conduct Research?

• Research Process:

  1. Observation:

  • Initial step is to observe behaviors (e.g., impact of video games).

  1. State a Hypothesis:

  • Must be measurable and testable (e.g., "playing a violent video game increases aggression").

  1. Operationalize the Variables:

  • Define independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV).

    • Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated (e.g., type of video game).

    • Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome measured (e.g., aggression levels).

  1. Choose Participants:

  • Use a sample from the population, ideally through random selection.

  1. Pick a Research Method:

  • Descriptive methods (e.g., case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys) vs. experimental methods.

    • Experimental setups allow investigation of cause-and-effect relationships.

How Do Psychologists Make Sense of Research Results?

• Statistics in Research:

  • Researchers use statistics to analyze data from experiments or descriptive studies to determine significance and relationships between variables.

  • Correlations:

  • Correlation coefficients measure the strength and direction of a relationship between variables (ranging from -1.00 to +1.00).

  • Positive correlation: both variables increase together.

  • Negative correlation: one variable increases as the other decreases.

  • Means and Standard Deviations:

  • Mean: average of scores in a group.

  • Standard deviation: how scores deviate from the mean, indicating variability.

  • Effect size indicates the strength of a relationship between variables.

What Ethical Research Guidelines Do Psychologists Follow?

• Informed Consent:

  • Participants must be fully informed about research procedures and risks.

  • Parental consent is needed for minors.

• Protection from Harm:

  • Avoid unnecessary risk or discomfort.

• Confidentiality:

  • Safeguard participant information and responses.

• Voluntary Participation:

  • Participants may withdraw at any time without penalty.

• Deception and Debriefing:

  • Deception generally not allowed unless necessary and of minimal risk, with a follow-up debriefing explaining the methods and purpose of the study.

• Research Ethics Boards (REBs):

  • REBs evaluate research proposals to ensure participant welfare and ethical conduct.

Conclusion

• Psychology has evolved to use scientific methods similar to those in natural sciences, while addressing unique ethical and methodological challenges associated with studying human behavior and cognition.

• The biological, social, and personal complexities involved in human behavior necessitate careful consideration and scrutiny through adaptable research methodologies and ethical oversight.