Chapter 2: Approaches to Communication Theory and Theoretical Traditions

Approaches to Communication Theory

• General Purpose of Human Theorizing:

  • Make sense of the world.

  • Influenced by perspective, including:

  • Experiences

  • Standpoint

  • Ideology

• Objective Approach:

  • Based on the foundational concept that an observable truth exists in the world.

  • Objectivism:

  • The Truth of the world exists independently of thoughts and can be observed in an unbiased manner.

  • Researchers utilize quantitative measures in controlled experimental settings to uncover cause-and-effect relationships.

  • Employs scientific methods to explain why certain behaviors or instances happen.

• Interpretative Approach:

  • Based on the belief that truth is found within the individual or discovered through interpretation.

  • Interpretivism:

  • Reality is subjective, dynamic, and constructed through communication.

  • Direct observation is inherently biased by human experiences.

  • Researchers seek understanding through qualitative means and remain open to interpretation.

Epistemology and Rationality

• Epistemology:

  • Defined as the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge itself.

• Primary Ways of Knowing Information:

  • (1) Experience: Expressed from a first-person perspective ("I…").

  • (2) Authority: Imparted by a person of legitimacy who teaches it ("She/he/they…").

  • (3) Science: Knowledge acquired through systematic observation.

• Concept of Rationality:

  • Rational Characteristics:

  • Consistent across time

  • Well thought out

  • Logical

  • Irrational Characteristics:

  • Inconsistent

  • Often based on "gut" feelings

  • Illogical

Determinism versus Free Will

• Determinism:

  • Holds that human behavior is strictly determined by genes and the environment.

  • Conceptual framework adopted by Objectivists.

• Free Will:

  • Holds that human behavior is freely chosen by the individual.

  • Conceptual framework adopted by Interpretivists.

Correlation versus Causation

• Co-relation (Correlation):

  • Occurs when two variables relate to each other by changing together and appearing to happen in sync.

  • Positive Correlation: Two variables move in the same direction simultaneously (e.g., Both increasing or decreasing together, such as the enjoyment of a social situation).

  • Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other variable decreases (e.g., An introverted person may not like social situations as social intensity increases).

  • No Correlation: No observable relationship exists between the variables.

  • Spurious (Fake) Correlation: Two variables are connected purely by data patterns without sharing a true cause-and-effect relationship.

• Evaluating Causality:

  • To verify if a relationship is causal, three criteria must be investigated:

  • Temporal order (which variable occurs first)

  • Directionality (which direction the influence flows)

  • Third variable (whether an extraneous unstudied variable is causing the observed effect)

Experimental Controls and Directionality

• Control in Research:

  • Human experience is complex and requires methodological control because internal and external variables impact behavior, including:

  • Individual differences

  • Demographics

  • State (mental and physical state)

  • Personality

  • External noise

• Directionality:

  • Defined as the path or flow of information between a sender and a receiver.

Sources of Research Bias

• Confirmation Bias:

  • The act of seeking out, interpreting, and selecting information specifically as confirming one's existing hypothesis.

• Selection Bias:

  • Occurs when the participant sample is skewed, rendering it unstraight or inaccurate.

• Hawthorne Effect:

  • A phenomenon where research participants behave differently simply because they are being studied.

Ways of Knowing Information and Theoretical Traditions

• Common Sense or Folk Wisdom:

  • Asserts that something is true because it is self-evident (e.g., Common sense dictates that a person should go to college to get a good job).

  • Truth is assumed to be widely known.

  • Folk wisdom is loaded with assumed "truth".

  • Overcoming Common "Sense": Historical practices like slavery were built upon common sense and societal belief in a hierarchy of races; eliminating such beliefs represents critical historical progress.

  • Hindsight Bias: The tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen the outcome (e.g., stating one saw it happen before it happened). Consequently, the past seems "obvious" once knowledge has been obtained.

• Revelation or Inspiration:

  • Arrives as a sudden idea.

  • Involves metaphysical knowledge, such as:

  • Scriptural revelations

  • Mediums

  • "Readings"

• Authority:

  • Truth is established through a trusted source, such as:

  • Government and laws

  • Societal structures

  • Scriptures

  • Traditions

  • Experts

  • Problems with Authority: Authority is often just power, which is demonstrated through symbols.

• Opinion Leaders:

  • Defined as "important others" who change over time but are viewed as authority figures (e.g., Parents, friends, siblings, partners, children).

  • Developmental progression: Authority figures shift throughout childhood and adulthood from cartoon characters to TV show/movie characters, and ultimately to real-life celebrities.

Logic, Reason, and Empiricism

• Logic and Reason (Rationalization):

  • Logic: Defined as the ability to draw inferences from premises.

  • Premise: An assertion that is held to be true, though it may not always be correct.

• Empiricism:

  • Defined as the belief that truth can be observed through the human senses and direct experiences.

  • Core Limitation: Human senses can be inherently limited.

The Scientific Method and Its Development

• Historical Context:

  • Galileo Galilei is credited with developing the scientific method.

  • Galileo dropped balls of different weights off of the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

  • Challenged previously-held assumptions directly through experimentation.

• Steps of the Scientific Method:

  • (1) Observation

  • (2) Question / Problem

  • (3) Hypothesis

  • (4) Experiment

  • (5) Data Analysis

  • (6) Conclusion

  • (7) Communication

• Hypothesis:

  • Etymology: Originates from the Greek word meaning "to suppose".

  • Definition: An informed guess based on observation and known facts.

• Theory in the Scientific Method:

  • Defined as a set of hypotheses that has held up under experimentation.

  • Key properties of scientific theory:

  • Supported by observations

  • Applicable to multiple contexts

  • Can be generalized

Theory Forms and Structure

• Three Main Theory Forms:

  • Set of Laws: Composed of independent statements that must be confirmed by evidence first. Refers to something known to be true on the basis of substantial evidence.

  • Axiomatic: Includes propositions that are statements known to be true based on research, or assumed to be true.

  • Causal Process: Composed of statements of equal value regarding relationships among variables, frequently represented in graphic forms.

• Structural Elements of Good Theory:

  • Theories differ by theoretical goals:

  • Objective goals: Focus on explanation and prediction.

  • Interpretative goals: Focus on understanding and justice.

  • Core structural requirements:

  • Structure (having a clear starting point)

  • Operational definition (specifying how the theory is designed or measured)

Standards for Evaluating Theory

• Objective Theory Standards:

  • (1) Predictive accuracy: How reliably the theory depicts outcomes.

  • (2) Explanatory power: How well the theory explains variations in the data.

  • (3) Parsimony: Ensuring the theory is as simple as possible.

  • (4) Falsifiability: Ensuring the theory's premises can be empirically tested.

  • (5) Practical utility: The theory is useful for practical application in society.

• Interpretive Theory Standards:

  • (1) Clarification of values: Researchers are fully open and explicit about their own values.

  • (2) New understanding of people: Theories share new insights about the human condition.

  • (3) Aesthetic appeal: Theories are structured with elegance and creativity.

  • (4) Community of agreement: Theories successfully spark scholarly discussion and consensus.

  • (5) Reform of society: A good theory actively generates structural change.

Research Methods and Theory Fertility

• Fertility:

  • Both objective and interpretative theories must possess fertility, meaning they spawn further research inquiries.

• Types of Research Methodologies:

  • Quantitative Research:

  • Statistical evidence

  • Experimental designs

  • Qualitative Research:

  • Narrative evidence

  • Ethnographic studies

  • Textual analysis