Lifespan development

Chapter 1:

🧠 1. Human Development

• Development: The study of how and why people change or remain the same over time.

• Development is studied scientifically using the scientific method.

Scientific method:

1. Pose a question

2. Form a hypothesis

3. Design and conduct research

4. Analyze the findings

5. Decide whether the hypothesis was supported

6. Share conclusions and data

🧬 2. Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature: Genetic influences inherited from parents.

• Nurture: Environmental influences and experiences.

⭐ Most important point: Your professor emphasized that nature and nurture constantly interact with each other. It's not one or the other.

Example: Someone's athletic ability could be influenced by:

• Nature: Height, muscle composition, or other inherited traits

• Nurture: Coaching, practice, resources, and opportunities

🌱 3. Life-Span Perspective

Development:

• Begins at conception

• Continues throughout the entire lifespan

• Continues until death

• No single age period dominates development

Your professor discussed these major periods:

• Prenatal development

• Infancy and toddlerhood

• Early childhood

• Middle and late childhood

• Adolescence

• Emerging adulthood

• Early adulthood

• Middle adulthood

• Late adulthood

The 5 Major Themes of Development

1⃣ Development is Multidirectional

Multidirectional means that human characteristics can change in multiple directions throughout life.

For example, some abilities can improve while others become more difficult.

Critical Period

A specific period when a certain type of development must happen for normal development.

➡ If it doesn't happen during that period, it may never happen normally.

Sensitive Period

A period when development is most likely or easiest to occur.

➡ Development can still happen later, but it will be more difficult.

Easy way to remember:

• Critical = must happen

• Sensitive = easiest time to happen

2⃣ Development is Contextual

Contextual means that development occurs within different settings or environments.

These contexts can include:

• Family

• Community

• Physical surroundings

• Culture

• Historical events

• Economic circumstances

Types of Developmental Influences

Normative Age-Graded Influences

Events that are common for people at a particular age.

Examples:

• Puberty

• Menopause

➡ Age = think age-graded

Normative History-Graded Influences

Events that affect people from a particular generation because of historical circumstances.

Examples from the lecture:

• COVID-19

• The September 11 terrorist attacks

➡ History = think major historical event

Nonnormative Life Events

Unusual events that have a major impact on an individual's life but do not happen to everyone.

Examples:

• Winning the lottery

• An unexpected career opportunity

• Teen pregnancy

➡ Nonnormative = not typical for everyone

Cohort

A group of people who were born during the same historical period and experience events, technology, and cultural changes at roughly the same time.

🌎 3. Development is Multicultural

Development occurs across different cultures.

⭐ Important idea: Difference does not equal deficit.

Just because another culture does something differently does not mean it is wrong.

Your professor used examples such as:

• Different coming-of-age traditions

• Different sleeping practices for children

🔄 4. Development is Plastic

Plasticity means that development has the capacity to change.

People can learn, adapt, and change throughout their lives.

Example: Someone may relearn how to walk after a stroke or surgery.

🎓 5. Development is Multidisciplinary

Multidisciplinary means that human development is studied by many different fields, including:

• Psychology

• Education

• Nursing

• Health sciences

Different disciplines contribute different perspectives to understanding human development.

🌳 Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model

You are influenced by multiple systems around you:

Microsystem

Your immediate environment and the people you interact with directly.

Examples:

• Family

• School

• Friends

• Coworkers

Mesosystem

The interactions between parts of your microsystem.

Example: Your parents interacting with your friends or teachers.

Exosystem

Things that indirectly influence you even though you are not directly involved.

Example: Your parent's workplace.

Macrosystem

The larger culture, values, beliefs, and social systems surrounding you.

Examples:

• Cultural beliefs

• Political systems

• Socioeconomic conditions

Chronosystem

Changes and transitions that occur over time.

Example: A parent's divorce affecting a child's development.

🔬 Research Methods

Your professor discussed several different types.

Scientific Observation

Researchers carefully observe behavior.

Naturalistic observation: Observing behavior in a real-world environment without controlling the situation.

Case Study

An in-depth study of one individual.

Often useful for studying unusual situations.

Survey

Researchers directly ask people questions.

⚠ Disadvantage: People may not always report information accurately.

Experiment

A controlled study designed to determine cause and effect.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable the researcher changes or introduces.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome being measured that may change because of the independent variable.

Example from the lecture:

Does exercise affect stress?

• IV: Exercise

• DV: Stress level

📊 Research Designs

Cross-Sectional

Researchers study different age groups at the same time.

Example: Testing 20-, 40-, and 60-year-olds on intelligence during the same study.

Advantage: Fast.

Disadvantage: Does not show how the same people change over time.

Longitudinal

Researchers study the same people repeatedly over a long period of time.

Advantage: Shows how individuals change over time.

Disadvantages:

• Expensive

• Takes a long time

• Participants may drop out

Cross-Sequential

A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal research.

Researchers:

1. Study several groups of different ages

2. Follow them over time

This allows researchers to examine age-related changes and possible cohort effects.

🧠 Chapter 2: Theories of Development

1. What Do Developmental Theories Do?

A developmental theory is a group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations used to explain and understand human growth and development.

Theories:

• Provide a framework for understanding how and why people change

• Produce hypotheses

• Generate new discoveries

• Offer practical guidance

2. Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories suggest that behavior is:

• Influenced by the unconscious

• Shaped by emotions

• Often affected by early childhood experiences

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Freud believed that irrational and unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, influence human behavior.

He believed that early conflicts and how they are resolved can affect personality later in life.

Freud's Personality Structure

Freud's Five Psychosexual Stages

🧠 Easy way to remember Freud's stages:

O-A-P-L-G

Oral → Anal → Phallic → Latency → Genital

3. Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Erikson developed a theory consisting of eight developmental stages.

At every stage, a person experiences a major psychosocial crisis or conflict.

How Erikson differs from Freud:

• Erikson focused more on family and culture, rather than sexual urges.

• Erikson believed development continues throughout the entire lifespan.

• He included three stages after adolescence.

Erikson's Eight Stages

⭐ Definitely memorize these in order!

Trust → Autonomy → Initiative → Industry → Identity → Intimacy → Generativity → Integrity

4. Behaviorism

Behaviorism focuses on:

• Observable behavior

• How behavior is learned

• How the environment influences behavior

The basic idea is that learning occurs through experiences and interactions with the environment.

5. Classical Conditioning — Pavlov

Classical conditioning occurs when someone learns by making an association between stimuli.

Example:

Pavlov's dogs learned to associate a previously neutral stimulus with food.

⭐ Think: Classical conditioning = learning through association.

6. Operant Conditioning — B.F. Skinner

Operant conditioning focuses on the consequences of behavior.

Reinforcement and punishment can increase or decrease the likelihood that a behavior will happen again.

Reinforcement = Make a behavior happen more

Punishment = Make a behavior happen less

And remember:

• Positive = Adding something

• Negative = Taking something away

🧠 The easiest way to remember:

Positive = ADD
Negative = REMOVE

Reinforcement = INCREASE behavior
Punishment = DECREASE behavior

So if the question gives you a situation, ask yourself:

1. Was something added or removed?

2. Did the behavior increase or decrease?

That will tell you the answer.

7. Social Learning Theory — Bandura

Bandura expanded on behaviorism by emphasizing the influence of other people on our behavior.

The two important concepts are:

• Observational learning: Learning by watching others

• Modeling: Copying someone else's behavior

Example:

A child watches their parent do something and then copies that behavior.

⭐ Think: Bandura = Watch → Learn → Copy

The Three Types of Learning

8. Cognitive Theory

Cognitive theory focuses on how our:

• Thoughts

• Expectations

• Beliefs

• Attitudes

affect our behavior and development.

9. Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget believed cognitive development occurs in four major stages.

1. Sensorimotor Stage

Birth–2 years

• Uses senses and motor skills

• Learns object permanence

2. Preoperational Stage

2–6 years

• Symbolic thinking

• Language develops

• Egocentric thinking

• Imagination grows

3. Concrete Operational Stage

7–11 years

• More logical thinking

• Understands conservation

• Can understand numbers and classifications

4. Formal Operational Stage

12 years–adulthood

• Abstract thinking

• Hypothetical thinking

• Thinks about broader issues such as ethics, politics, and social issues

🧠 Easy way to remember Piaget:

Sensorimotor → Preoperational → Concrete Operational → Formal Operational

Think:

S → P → C → F

10. Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

This connects with Chapter 1.

The main idea is that our environment influences our development.

The five systems are:

1. Microsystem — Direct environment, such as family and school

2. Mesosystem — Interactions between parts of the microsystem

3. Exosystem — Environments that indirectly influence someone

4. Macrosystem — Culture, beliefs, values, and larger social conditions

5. Chronosystem — Changes and transitions over time

🧬 Chapter 3: Heredity and Environment

1. The Genetic Code

DNA

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the molecule that contains the chemical instructions cells use to manufacture proteins.

DNA:

• Promotes growth

• Sustains life

Chromosomes

Chromosomes are structures made of DNA.

Humans usually have:

• 46 chromosomes

• Arranged in 23 pairs

2. Beyond the Genes

Genome

A genome is the complete set of genes containing the instructions for making an individual member of a species.

Allele

An allele is a variation or possible form of a particular gene.

🌱 Epigenetics

Epigenetics focuses on how environmental factors affect genes and gene expression.

The environment can influence whether certain genes are:

• Enhanced

• Halted

• Shaped

• Altered in their expression

⭐ Important: Epigenetics does not necessarily change the actual genetic code itself. Instead, it affects how genes are expressed.

🧬 Genotype vs. Phenotype

This is something you should definitely memorize.

Genotype

Your entire genetic inheritance or genetic potential.

➡ Think: What genes do you have?

Phenotype

The observable and measurable characteristics of a person.

Phenotype depends on:

• Genetics

• Environmental influences

➡ Think: What traits can we observe?

Easy way to remember:

Genotype = Genes 🧬
Phenotype = Physical/observable traits

🍼 The Beginning of Life

Gametes

Gametes are reproductive cells:

• Sperm

• Ova (eggs)

Each gamete has 23 chromosomes.

Zygote

A zygote forms when two gametes combine:

23 chromosomes from the mother + 23 chromosomes from the father = 46 chromosomes

A zygote is the beginning of a new individual.

👶 Male or Female?

Humans usually have 46 chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes in the 23rd pair.

• XX = Female

• XY = Male

According to the slides, the sex of the offspring depends on whether the father's sperm carrying an X or Y chromosome fertilizes the ovum.

🔬 New Cells, New People

After the zygote forms, it begins:

1. Duplication

2. Division

3. Differentiation

4. Specialization

Stem Cells

Stem cells can develop into different specialized types of cells.

As development continues, cells become more specialized for particular functions.

👯 Twins

Monozygotic Twins (Identical)

• Begin as one zygote

• The zygote splits very early in development

• Have the same genotype

• Can still have slight differences in phenotype because of environmental influences

⚠ An incomplete split can result in conjoined twins.

Dizygotic Twins (Fraternal)

• Begin with two separate ova

• Each ovum is fertilized by a separate sperm

• Share approximately half of their genes, similar to regular siblings

• Occur more frequently than monozygotic twins

Easy way to remember:

Mono = One → One zygote

Di = Two → Two ova + two sperm

🧬 Chromosomal Disorders

Down Syndrome

• Also called Trisomy 21

• Occurs when there are three copies of chromosome 21

⭐ Tri = Three

Klinefelter Syndrome

• XXY

• Occurs in individuals with a typically male chromosomal pattern

• Associated with differences in sexual development

For your test, the biggest thing to remember is:

➡ Klinefelter = XXY

Turner Syndrome

• X0

• Only one sex chromosome

• Occurs in individuals with a typically female chromosomal pattern

The biggest thing to remember:

➡ Turner = X0

🧬 Gene Disorders

Dominant-Gene Disorders

According to your slides:

• A person with a dominant disorder has about a 50% chance of passing it to each child

• Many dominant disorders begin during adulthood

• Symptoms can vary in severity

Example from your slides:

• Alzheimer's disease

Recessive-Gene Disorders

• More numerous than dominant-gene disorders

• Can be passed down by carriers who may not know they carry the gene

• Many are present at birth

Example from your slides:

• Sickle-cell disease

🤰 Chapter 4: Prenatal Development & Birth

1. Pregnancy Basics

Pregnancy begins at conception, when a sperm fertilizes an egg.

Three Trimesters

• First trimester: Months 1–3

• Second trimester: Months 4–6

• Third trimester: Months 7–9

A full-term pregnancy is approximately 266 days after conception, or about 40 weeks when measured from the last menstrual period.

2. The Three Periods of Prenatal Development

This is definitely something you should memorize.

🥚 Germinal Period

Timing: First 2 weeks after conception

Important events:

1. Sperm fertilizes the egg → zygote

2. The zygote rapidly divides into more cells.

3. Cells begin differentiation.

4. The developing cells form a blastocyst.

5. The blastocyst travels to the uterus.

6. Implantation occurs when the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall.

Blastocyst

The blastocyst has two important parts:

• Inner layer: Eventually develops into the embryo.

• Outer layer (trophoblast): Eventually develops into the placenta.

Placenta

The placenta provides nutrition and support for the developing embryo throughout pregnancy.

⭐ Important: The germinal period ends with implantation.

👶 Embryonic Period

Timing: Approximately weeks 3–8

This is when cell differentiation becomes more intense and major structures begin forming.

During this period:

• Organs begin developing

• The brain begins developing

• The heart begins to function

• The eyes, nose, and digestive system begin forming

The Neural Tube

Around the beginning of the embryonic period, the neural tube forms.

The neural tube eventually develops into the:

• Brain

• Spinal cord

⭐ So if the exam asks "What develops first?", one important answer from your professor's lecture is that the neural tube/central nervous system begins forming very early, followed by the development of other major structures and organs.

📈 Patterns of Prenatal Development

Cephalocaudal Pattern

Development begins at the head and gradually moves downward toward the feet.

🧠 Cephalo = head

Proximodistal Pattern

Development begins at the center of the body and gradually moves outward toward the extremities.

🧠 Proximo = close/center

For example, the torso and organs develop before the fingers and toes are fully developed.

🤱 Fetal Period

Timing: About 2 months after conception until birth

The developing embryo is now called a fetus.

The fetal period mainly involves:

• Growth

• Maturation of body systems

• Continued development of the brain and organs

Second Trimester

During this period:

• Rapid growth occurs

• The fetus becomes more active

• The mother may begin feeling movement

• The heartbeat becomes stronger

• Digestion develops

• Eyes open

• Fingernails, toenails, and hair begin developing

🏥 Age of Viability

The age of viability is approximately 22–24 weeks after conception.

This is the point when a fetus may be able to survive outside the uterus with specialized medical care, such as care in a NICU.

⭐ Memorize: Viability = around 22–24 weeks.

Third Trimester

The final three months are especially important for the development of:

• Brain

• Respiratory system

• Cardiovascular system

During this period:

• The lungs mature

• The heart and blood vessels continue maturing

• Brain pathways develop

• Different brain areas become more established

⚠ Teratogens

A teratogen is anything that can increase the risk of prenatal abnormalities or birth complications.

Examples mentioned by your professor:

• Alcohol

• Smoking

• Some prescription and non-prescription drugs

• Diseases and infections

• Environmental pollutants

• Lead

• Mercury

• Radiation

• Malnutrition

• High levels of stress

Two Types of Teratogen Effects

Prenatal/Physical Teratogens

Cause problems that may be observable at birth, such as physical abnormalities.

Behavioral Teratogens

Can affect:

• Cognitive abilities

• Emotional functioning

• Later behavior and development

These effects may not be obvious at birth.

⏰ What Influences How Harmful a Teratogen Is?

This is one of the specific questions on your original study guide!

There are three major factors your professor discussed:

1. Timing

When exposure happens is extremely important.

The embryonic period is especially sensitive because major body structures and organs are developing.

During the fetal period, teratogens are more likely to affect:

• Growth

• Organ functioning

2. Dose

Generally:

The greater the dose, the greater the potential effect.

Two fetuses could be exposed to the same teratogen but experience different outcomes depending on the amount of exposure.

3. Genetics

The genetic makeup (genotype) of:

• The pregnant person

• The embryo or fetus

can affect susceptibility to teratogens.

⭐ Easy memory trick:

Timing + Dose + Genetics

Those are the three major factors from your professor's lecture.

🍷 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Your professor spent quite a bit of time discussing this, so I would know the basics.

Fetal alcohol syndrome refers to a group of developmental problems associated with heavy alcohol exposure during pregnancy.

Your professor mentioned possible effects involving:

• Physical development

• Learning

• Behavior

• Other aspects of development

The biggest test point is likely:

➡ The amount and timing of exposure matter when considering teratogen effects.

🧬 Genetics and Prenatal Development

Your professor also connected Chapter 3 to Chapter 4.

Folic Acid

Folic acid is important because it helps with the development of the neural tube, which develops into the brain and spinal cord.

Genetic differences can affect how a person's body processes certain nutrients, which can influence prenatal development.

Lifespan Development — Exam 1 Study Guide

Chapter 1: The Science of Human Development

Be able to define development and the science of human development

Development: The pattern of growth, change, and stability that occurs throughout the lifespan.

The science of human development: The scientific study of how and why people of all ages change or remain the same over time.

What is the nature-nurture debate and what is the current belief?

The nature-nurture debate asks how much of a person's characteristics, behaviors, and emotions come from:

• Nature: Genes inherited from parents

• Nurture: Environmental influences and experiences

Current belief: Nature and nurture constantly interact with each other. Genes influence the environment, and environmental experiences can influence how genes are expressed.

What is the Life-Span Perspective?

The life-span perspective is the idea that development:

• Begins at conception

• Continues throughout the entire lifespan

• Ends at death

• Involves multiple phases of life

• Is influenced by multiple factors and contexts

No single age period dominates development.

How is development plastic?

Plasticity means that development has the capacity for change.

People can learn, adapt, and change throughout life. For example, someone may relearn how to walk after an injury or surgery.

Distinguish Between Different Types of Influences

Normative Age-Graded Influences

Influences that are common for people of a particular age group.

Examples: Puberty or menopause.

Normative History-Graded Influences

Influences caused by historical events that affect a particular generation or cohort.

Examples: COVID-19 or the September 11 attacks.

Nonnormative Life Events

Unusual events that have a major impact on an individual's life and do not happen to everyone.

Examples: Winning the lottery, an unexpected career opportunity, or teen pregnancy.

Distinguish Between Research Designs

Cross-Sectional Research

Studies different groups of people of different ages at the same time.

• Advantage: Quick

• Disadvantage: Does not show how the same individuals change over time

Longitudinal Research

Studies the same individuals over a long period of time.

• Advantage: Shows how people change as they age

• Disadvantages: Expensive, time-consuming, and participants may drop out

Cross-Sequential Research

Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal research.

Researchers study different age groups and follow them over time.

Chapter 2: Theories of Development

Understand What Psychoanalytic Theories Are

Psychodynamic/psychoanalytic theories emphasize that behavior is influenced by:

• The unconscious

• Emotions

• Early childhood experiences

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Freud believed that unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, influence human behavior.

He believed that how early conflicts are resolved helps shape personality.

Freud's Personality Structure

• Id: Primitive and instinctive part of personality

• Ego: Mediates between the id, superego, and reality

• Superego: Moral conscience

Freud's Five Psychosexual Stages

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Erikson believed development occurs throughout the lifespan and involves eight stages. Each stage involves a major psychosocial conflict.

How Erikson differs from Freud

Erikson:

• Focused more on family and culture rather than sexual urges

• Believed development continues throughout the entire lifespan

• Included additional stages during adulthood

What Is Behaviorism?

Behaviorism is a theory of learning that focuses on observable behavior and how behavior is learned through interactions with the environment.

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning proposes that the consequences of a behavior affect whether that behavior will happen again.

• Reinforcement: Increases a behavior

• Punishment: Decreases a behavior

• Positive: Something is added

• Negative: Something is removed

Positive Reinforcement

Add something to increase a behavior.

Example: A child plays nicely and receives ice cream.

Negative Reinforcement

Remove something to increase a behavior.

Example: A child plays nicely and has chores taken away.

Positive Punishment

Add something to decrease a behavior.

Example: A child argues and receives extra chores.

Negative Punishment

Take something away to decrease a behavior.

Example: A child argues and loses video game privileges.

The easiest way to identify them:

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura emphasized that people learn by observing other people.

Important concepts:

• Observational learning: Learning by watching others

• Modeling: Imitating or copying observed behavior

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner believed that development is influenced by the environment and the systems surrounding an individual.

Microsystem

The immediate environments and people you interact with directly.

Examples: Family, school, friends.

Mesosystem

The interaction between different parts of the microsystem.

Example: Your parents interacting with your teachers.

Exosystem

A setting that indirectly influences you.

Example: A parent's workplace.

Macrosystem

The larger culture and social environment.

Examples: Cultural beliefs, values, and political systems.

Chronosystem

Changes and transitions that occur over time.

Example: A parent's divorce affecting a child's development.

Chapter 3: Heredity and Environment

What Is Epigenetics?

Epigenetics is the study of how environmental factors can affect gene expression.

Environmental influences can enhance, halt, shape, or alter how genes are expressed without necessarily changing the DNA sequence itself.

What Is a Zygote?

A zygote is the cell formed when a sperm and egg combine at conception.

A zygote receives:

• 23 chromosomes from the sperm

• 23 chromosomes from the egg

This usually results in 46 chromosomes.

Differentiate Between Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype

A person's complete genetic inheritance or genetic potential.

Phenotype

A person's observable and measurable characteristics.

Phenotype is influenced by both genes and the environment.

Easy memory trick:

• Genotype = Genes

• Phenotype = Physical/observable traits

Monozygotic vs. Dizygotic Twins

Monozygotic (Identical)

• Begin as one zygote

• The zygote splits early in development

• Have the same genotype

• Can have slight differences in phenotype because of environmental influences

Dizygotic (Fraternal)

• Develop from two separate eggs

• Each egg is fertilized by a different sperm

• Share approximately half of their genes

• Are genetically similar to regular siblings

Variations in Sexual Development

Humans usually have 46 chromosomes, with two sex chromosomes forming the 23rd pair.

• XX: Typically associated with female development

• XY: Typically associated with male development

The sperm determines whether an X or Y chromosome is contributed.

Your study materials also cover variations in sex chromosomes:

• XXY: Klinefelter syndrome (males having more feminine features)

• X0: Turner syndrome (women having more male chromosomes )

Recognize Common Genetic and Chromosomal Disorders

Down Syndrome

• Trisomy 21

• Three copies of chromosome 21

Klinefelter Syndrome

• XXY

• Associated with variations in typically male sexual development

Turner Syndrome

• X0

• Only one sex chromosome

• Associated with variations in typically female sexual development

Dominant-Gene Disorders

• A person with the disorder may have about a 50% chance of passing the gene to each child, depending on inheritance circumstances

• Many begin in adulthood

Example from your slides: Alzheimer's disease.

Recessive-Gene Disorders

• Often passed down by carriers

• A person generally must inherit the relevant recessive variant from both parents to develop the disorder

Example from your slides: Sickle-cell disease.

Chapter 4: Prenatal Development & Birth

What Occurs During the Three Periods of Prenatal Development?

1. Germinal Period

Timing: Conception through approximately the first 2 weeks.

What happens:

• Sperm fertilizes the egg

• A zygote forms

• The zygote rapidly divides

• Cells begin differentiating

• A blastocyst forms

• The blastocyst travels to the uterus

• Implantation occurs

⭐ The germinal period ends with implantation.

2. Embryonic Period

Timing: Approximately weeks 3–8 after conception.

What happens:

• Cell differentiation intensifies

• Major body structures begin developing

• Organs begin forming

• The brain and central nervous system begin developing

• The heart begins functioning

• Facial features and the digestive system begin forming

What develops first?

One of the earliest important structures mentioned in your lecture is the neural tube, which develops into the:

• Brain

• Spinal cord

This is followed by the rapid development of other major body structures and organs.

3. Fetal Period

Timing: Approximately 2 months after conception until birth.

The developing organism is now called a fetus.

Major events:

• Rapid growth

• Continued brain development

• Maturation of organs and body systems

• Development of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems

Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Development

Cephalocaudal

Development proceeds from the head downward toward the feet.

Cephalo = Head

Proximodistal

Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

For example, the torso develops before the fingers and toes are fully developed.

What Is the Age of Viability?

The age of viability is approximately 22–24 weeks after conception.

At this point, a fetus may be able to survive outside the uterus with specialized medical care, such as care in a NICU.

What Is a Teratogen?

A teratogen is anything that can increase the risk of prenatal abnormalities or birth complications.

Examples from your lecture:

• Alcohol

• Smoking

• Certain drugs

• Diseases and infections

• Lead and mercury

• Radiation

• Environmental pollutants

• Malnutrition

• High levels of stress

What Factors Influence the Effects of Teratogens?

1. Timing

When exposure occurs during prenatal development.

The embryonic period is particularly sensitive because major organs and structures are forming.

2. Dose

Generally, the greater the amount of exposure, the greater the potential effect.

3. Genetics

The genotype of both the pregnant person and the developing embryo or fetus can influence susceptibility.

Easy way to remember:

T-D-G

Timing
Dose
Genetics

Chapter Notes: Infancy — Physical Growth, Nutrition, Reflexes & Motor Development

1. Physical Growth in Infancy

Rapid Growth

• Growth during infancy is very rapid, especially during the first year.

• Average newborn:

  • ~20 inches long

  • ~7–7.5 lbs

• Newborns typically lose 5–7% of their birth weight during the first few days.

  • This happens while they adjust to feeding (sucking, swallowing, and digesting).

Weight Growth

• By 4 months: babies usually double their birth weight.

  • Example: 7 lbs → ~14 lbs

• By 1 year: babies usually triple their birth weight.

  • Example: 7 lbs → ~21 lbs

Height Growth

• Newborn: ~20 inches

• By 1 year: grows about 10 inches → ~30 inches

• By age 2, children are approximately ½ of their adult height.

  • Adult height can be roughly estimated by doubling the child's height at age 2.

  • Example: 2.5 ft at age 2 → ~5 ft as an adult

2. Patterns of Growth

Cephalocaudal Pattern

Growth occurs from head → lower body ("head to tail").

• The head develops before the lower parts of the body.

• Within the head:

  • Brain and eyes develop faster than the jaw.

• Sensory and motor development generally follow this pattern.

• Example:

  • Baby gains neck/head control before gaining control of their torso.

  • Baby can look around before being able to roll over.

Proximodistal Pattern

Growth occurs from the center of the body → outward ("near to far").

• Trunk/arms develop before hands/fingers.

• Example:

  • Babies can move/wave their arms before they can accurately grasp an object.

Easy way to remember:

• Cephalocaudal = Head → Toe

• Proximodistal = Center → Outside

3. Growth Percentiles

Percentile: A number that ranks an infant compared with other infants of the same age.

Example:

• A 1-year-old is in the 30th percentile for weight.

• This means:

  • 29% of 1-year-olds weigh less.

  • About 70% weigh more.

Why Percentiles Matter

Doctors regularly measure:

• Height

• Weight

They look at whether the baby's percentile stays relatively consistent over time.

⚠ Rapid changes in percentiles may indicate a problem.

Examples:

• Weight percentile dropping quickly → possible lack of food/nutrition

• Weight percentile increasing too quickly → possible overfeeding

• Height and weight percentiles being very far apart → may indicate a developmental concern

4. Breastfeeding

WHO Recommendation

• The World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months.

• During this period, the infant should receive breast milk only rather than formula, cereal, or water.

Colostrum

Colostrum: A thick, high-calorie fluid produced by the breasts immediately after birth.

• Produced in small amounts

• Mother's regular milk usually comes in 3–5 days after birth

• Contains:

  • Antibodies

  • White blood cells

• Helps strengthen the infant's immune system

• Helps protect against infections

• Especially beneficial for preterm infants

Easy way to remember:

Colostrum = early milk + immune protection

5. Benefits of Breast Milk

Breast milk contains:

• Water

• Proteins

• Fats

• Carbohydrates

These provide:

• Energy

• Nutrients

• Support for brain development

Important:

Breast milk changes over time based on the baby's changing nutritional needs.

It can also provide antibodies that help the infant fight infections.

Benefits for Infants

• Provides balanced nutrition

• Easy to digest

• Supports brain development

• Supports the immune system

• Reduces infant illness

• May reduce risk of becoming overweight

• May reduce certain allergies

• May reduce risk of heart disease later in life

6. Breastfeeding and SIDS

SIDS = Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

• Infant suddenly stops breathing, usually during sleep, without an apparent cause.

• It is a major cause of infant death in the United States.

How breastfeeding may reduce SIDS risk:

1. Helps develop oral and throat muscles

2. Supports coordination of sucking and swallowing

3. Supports the ability to keep airways open

4. Nutrients support brain development

5. Supports the central nervous system, which helps regulate breathing during sleep

7. Benefits of Breastfeeding for Mothers

Breastfeeding can:

• Promote bonding between mother and baby

• Release oxytocin, a hormone associated with bonding

• Reduce the mother's risk of:

  • Breast cancer

  • Osteoporosis

• Does not require purchasing or preparing formula

• Can make feeding while traveling easier

8. Malnutrition

Malnutrition: Lack of proper nutrition needed for normal growth and development.

Protein-Calorie Malnutrition

Occurs when a person does not consume enough food/nutrients.

Can lead to:

• Severe weight loss

• Illness

• Poor development

• Death in severe cases

Stunting

Failure to grow to a normal height for a child's age.

Wasting

Being severely underweight for one's age.

Effects of Malnutrition

• Decreased brain growth

• Abnormal brain development

• Lower IQ later in life among people who experienced severe infant malnutrition

• Increased susceptibility to infections

• Less body fat/body reserves to protect against illness

• Common childhood illnesses can become more dangerous

9. Newborn Reflexes

Reflex: An automatic/involuntary response that does not require conscious control.

Newborn reflexes:

• Are genetic survival mechanisms

• Help babies adapt to their environment

• Occur before babies have learned voluntary movements

Reflexes That Continue Throughout Life

Examples:

• Coughing

• Sneezing

• Blinking

• Yawning

Some Infant Reflexes Disappear

As the brain and voluntary control develop, some newborn reflexes disappear after several months.

10. Important Newborn Reflexes

Sucking Reflex

• Baby automatically sucks when something is placed in their mouth.

• Helps the newborn eat and receive nourishment.

Rooting Reflex

• When the baby's cheek or side of the mouth is touched:

  • Baby turns their head toward the touch.

• Helps the baby find something to suck, such as the breast.

Remember:

• Rooting = Find the food

• Sucking = Get the food

Moro Reflex

Also called the startle reflex.

When startled by a sudden/intense sound or movement, the baby may:

1. Arch their back

2. Throw their head back

3. Extend arms and legs

4. Quickly pull them back in

• Thought to help infants respond to a sudden loss of support.

Grasping Reflex

• When something touches an infant's palm, they automatically close their hand around it.

• Eventually develops into a voluntary grasp.

• Around 3 months, babies may intentionally reach for and grasp objects.

11. Gross Motor Skills

Gross motor skills: Movements involving large parts of the body and coordination of many muscles.

Examples:

• Sitting

• Crawling

• Walking

• Running

• Jumping

Gross motor development generally follows:

• Cephalocaudal pattern

• Proximodistal pattern

Gross Motor Milestones

⚠ Important: Babies develop at different rates. Not every baby reaches milestones at exactly the same age.

12. Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills: Small, coordinated movements involving the hands and fingers.

Development is influenced by:

• Practice

• Caregiving

• Culture

• Environment

Culture and Motor Development

Different cultures may encourage or discourage certain skills depending on the environment.

Example:

• Walking may be encouraged early in communities where children need to travel/walk frequently.

• Walking may be discouraged in environments with dangers such as open water or fires.

Practice and encouragement can help motor skills develop.

13. Fine Motor Milestones

14. Pincer Grasp

Pincer grasp: Using the thumb and finger to pick up small objects.

Development:

• Around 9 months: begins developing pincer grasp

• Around 12 months: uses pincer grasp to pick up objects and put them into containers

• By 18–24 months: greater coordination using thumb and fingers

Example: Picking up a small piece of food such as a Cheerio.

Chapter Notes: Cognitive, Language & Emotional Development in Infancy

1. Infants and Learning

How Infants Learn

• Infants hear many sounds around them:

  • Voices

  • Household noises

  • Nature sounds

• However, they pay the most attention to human voices because these sounds help them learn.

Universalists

Universalists: Infants can initially hear and distinguish the sound differences of all human languages.

• Newborns can distinguish differences between languages.

• Examples:

  • English vs. German

  • Spanish vs. Italian

• By about 1 year old, this ability begins to decrease.

• As children grow older, they become better at distinguishing sounds in their own language but lose sensitivity to sounds that aren't used in their language.

Infants Listen to Learn

• Research found that 1-year-olds can recognize correctly pronounced words better than deliberately mispronounced words.

• This shows that babies are actively listening to learn language.

2. Gaze Following

Gaze following: The ability to determine where another person is looking by observing the direction of their eyes.

Example:

• Parent looks toward a door.

• Baby watches the parent's eyes.

• Baby then looks toward the door.

Infants naturally pay attention to what their caregivers are looking at.

Natural Pedagogy

Natural pedagogy: Social learning in which knowledge or skills are transferred through communication between people.

Examples:

• Caregiver calls the baby's name.

• Caregiver points toward an object.

• Baby looks at the object.

Important Finding

Babies don't always need a caregiver to:

• Point

• Call their name

• Give another obvious cue

They may naturally follow an adult's gaze.

➡ Gaze following is influenced by both nature and nurture.

3. Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Cognitive development: Changes in how people think and understand the world over time.

Piaget believed that during the first two years, infants are in the:

Sensorimotor Stage

Age: Birth → ~2 years

Sensorimotor intelligence: Infants gain knowledge through their senses and motor actions.

Infants learn through:

• Seeing

• Hearing

• Touching

• Tasting

• Physical movement

• Interacting with objects

Example

A baby shakes a toy and hears it rattle.

The baby learns:
Action → Effect

This helps develop an understanding of cause and effect.

4. Oral Exploration

Oral exploration: Infants use their mouths to explore objects.

Babies put objects in their mouths to learn about:

• Taste

• Texture

• Shape

Why is sensory play important?

Sensory experiences help build neural connections in the brain, which support more complex learning later.

5. Assimilation vs. Accommodation

Piaget believed children adapt their understanding through assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

Assimilation = fitting new information into an existing idea.

Example:

• Child knows what a dog is.

• Child sees a horse for the first time.

• Child calls it a dog because it has four legs and looks similar.

➡ New information is being connected to an existing idea.

Accommodation

Accommodation = changing an existing idea to include new information.

Example:

• Child learns that the four-legged animal is actually a horse.

• Child now understands:

  • Dogs are one type of four-legged animal.

  • Horses are another type.

➡ The child's existing understanding is changed/expanded.

Easy way to remember:

• Assimilation = Add new information to what you already know

• Accommodation = Adjust what you already know

6. Object Permanence

Object permanence: Understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Development

• Around 8 months: object permanence begins developing.

• By 2 years: children fully understand object permanence.

Example

Before object permanence:

• Baby sees a toy.

• Toy is covered by a blanket.

• Baby acts as though the toy no longer exists.

After object permanence:

• Baby sees the toy.

• Toy is covered.

• Baby looks for it or removes the covering because they know it still exists.

7. Language Development

Children across different languages generally follow a similar sequence of language development.

Language Milestones

Crying

Birth

• First form of communication.

• Used to communicate needs such as:

  • Hunger

  • Tiredness

  • Discomfort/distress

Cooing

2–4 months

Cooing: Gurgling sounds made in the back of the throat.

• Usually expresses pleasure

• Often occurs during interactions with caregivers

Babbling

6–9 months

Babbling: Repetition of syllables such as:

• "ba-ba-ba"

• "da-da-da"

Why is babbling important?

• Helps babies practice mouth movements needed for speech.

• Acts as a building block for language.

• Early babbling can help predict later vocabulary development.

8. Gestures

8–12 months

Babies begin using gestures to communicate.

Examples:

• Waving "bye-bye"

• Nodding "yes"

• Pointing

• Showing an empty cup to request more milk

Why are gestures important?

Caregivers often respond by naming or talking about what the baby is pointing toward.

➡ This can help advance language development.

9. First Words

Around 13 months

Children begin saying their first words.

Important:

• Children generally understand words before they can say them.

• Around 13 months, children may understand approximately 50 words.

• They cannot necessarily say 50 words yet.

Common First Words

Usually include familiar nouns:

• Mom/Dad

• Kitty

• Car

• Other familiar objects or people

10. Vocabulary Spurt

Around 18 months

Vocabulary spurt: A rapid increase in the rate at which children learn new words.

Early on:

• Children may learn a few words every few days.

During vocabulary spurt:

• They begin learning many words much more quickly.

• About 50–100 words per month.

11. Two-Word Sentences

18–24 months

Children begin combining two words.

Examples:

• "More milk"

• "See doggie"

• "Where ball?"

Children rely heavily on:

• Gestures

• Tone

• Context

to communicate the meaning of their short sentences.

12. Three-Word Sentences

Around age 2

Children begin using three-word sentences.

They often use:

Subject + Verb + Object

Examples:

• "Mommy read book."

• "Daddy eat cookie."

13. Environment and Language Development

Environmental factors can affect language development.

Hart & Risley Study

Researchers Betty Hart and Todd Risley studied the language environments of children from different socioeconomic backgrounds.

They found differences in:

• How much parents talked to children

• How much parents discussed past events

• How much parents elaborated on conversations

Important Context

These differences can be influenced by factors such as:

• Parents working multiple jobs

• Limited time at home

• Other children needing care

• Available resources

• Socioeconomic circumstances

Effects

Children experiencing extreme poverty were found to have lower levels of:

• Vocabulary

• Reading comprehension

Key Point:

Caregiver and teacher involvement supports language development.

14. Television and Language Development

Infants and young children generally do not learn language effectively from television or videos alone.

• Frequent television viewing has been associated with increased risk of delayed language development.

• Simply hearing language isn't the same as having someone directly communicate with the child.

However:

Educational videos can be more beneficial when a parent watches and interacts with the child.

➡ Interaction is important.

15. Shared Reading

Shared reading: Adults reading books with infants/children and interacting with them.

Benefits:

• Improves vocabulary

• Supports language development

• Supports later reading comprehension

Children who participate in parent-child book reading interactions tend to have stronger language skills later.

16. Child-Directed Speech

Child-directed speech: The way adults naturally speak to infants and young children.

Also commonly called "baby talk."

Characteristics:

• Higher pitch

• Slower speech

• Simple words

• Simple sentences

Why is it useful?

• Captures infants' attention.

• Helps infants recognize speech patterns.

• Helps them distinguish language directed toward children from adult conversation.

Research suggests that infants exposed to this style show:

• More advanced babbling

• Increased vocabulary by around 14 months

17. Recasting, Expanding & Labeling

Recasting

Recasting: An adult takes a child's short/incomplete sentence and restates it using proper grammar.

Example:

Child: "Dog bark."

Adult: "You heard the dog barking."

➡ The adult acknowledges what the child said while modeling better language.

Labeling

Labeling: Naming an object that a child is interested in.

Example:

• Adult holds up glasses.

• "Glasses."

Expanding

Adults can go beyond simply naming the object.

Example:

• "Glasses."

• "Glasses go on my face and help my eyes see."

➡ Gives the child both the name and information about the object.

18. How Caregivers Can Support Language Development

1. Initiate conversations

• Talk directly to your baby.

• Treat them as active conversation partners.

2. Narrate daily activities

Talk about what you're doing.

Example:

"I'm unloading the dishwasher. I'm taking out a bowl."

3. Speak slowly

• A slower pace helps infants identify individual words.

4. Use gaze + gestures + labels

Look at/point to an object and name it.

Example:

"Look, Alex! An airplane!"

5. Keep language simple and repetitive

• Familiar words help babies remember them.

6. Play language games

Examples:

• Peekaboo

• Patty Cake

7. Listen and be patient

• Toddlers often speak slowly.

• Don't immediately finish their sentences for them.

8. Ask questions that encourage answers

Instead of questions requiring only:

• Yes

• No

Use questions that encourage the child to explain.

9. Repeat, expand, and recast

Child:

"Daddy."

Adult:

"Where's Daddy?"

Then:

"Let's go find him."

🧠 Emotional Development

19. Emotions

Emotion: A feeling or affect that occurs when a person is in a state or interaction that is important to their well-being.

Emotions help with:

• Communication with others

• Behavioral organization

20. Smiling and Laughing

Social Smile

Around 6 weeks

• Evoked by seeing human faces.

Laughter

Around 3–4 months

• Often associated with curiosity and enjoyable interactions.

21. Anger

Around 6 months

• First clearly expressed around 6 months.

• Is a healthy response to frustration.

22. Sadness

• Appears during the first months of life.

• Can indicate withdrawal.

• Is a stressful experience for infants.

23. Fear

Around 9 months

Fear can emerge in response to:

• People

• Objects

• Situations

Stranger Wariness/Anxiety

Infants may:

• Stop smiling at unfamiliar people

• Cry

• Look frightened

• Become distressed when a stranger comes too close

⚠ Not every infant reacts negatively to strangers.

24. Separation Anxiety

Separation anxiety: Tears, distress, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves.

• Common during infancy/early childhood.

• Can involve:

  • Crying

  • Anger

  • Distress

If strong separation anxiety continues after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.

❤ Attachment

25. Attachment

Attachment: A close emotional bond between two people.

Important characteristics:

• Universal → attachment occurs across cultures.

• Mutual → both people participate in the relationship.

26. Attachment Theorists

Sigmund Freud

Oral Stage

• Believed infants become attached to the person who provides oral satisfaction.

• Feeding was considered important to attachment.

Harry Harlow

Monkey Experiment

• Studied attachment using infant monkeys.

• Used:

  • Wire "mother"

  • Soft cloth "mother"

Finding:

Infants preferred physical contact and comfort.

➡ Attachment is not simply about receiving food.

Erik Erikson

Trust vs. Mistrust

• First psychosocial crisis

• Occurs during infancy.

• Infants need to develop trust in caregivers.

• Trust helps children develop confidence.

John Bowlby

• Believed infants and primary caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments.

• Attachment is part of human development and survival.

27. Mary Ainsworth — Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth (1973)

Created the Strange Situation, an observational method used to study infant attachment.

The infant experiences:

• Introduction to caregiver

• Separation from caregiver

• Reunion with caregiver

Researchers observe the infant's behavior to identify attachment patterns.

28. Attachment Patterns

Secure Attachment

• Infant uses caregiver as a secure base.

• Child feels comfortable exploring the environment.

• Child feels confident because the caregiver provides security.

Key idea:
Secure = Explore because caregiver is a safe base.

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

• Infant avoids the caregiver.

• Child may play independently without seeking contact.

Key idea:
Avoidant = Avoids caregiver.

Insecure-Resistant Attachment

• Child may cling to caregiver.

• Child also resists closeness.

• May:

  • Kick

  • Push away

  • Become angry

• Often becomes upset when caregiver leaves.

Key idea:
Resistant = Wants closeness but also resists it.

Insecure-Disorganized Attachment

• Child displays disorganized or confused behavior.

• May appear disoriented.

Associated with increased risk for later:

• Severe aggression

• Major depression

Key idea:
Disorganized = Confused/disoriented attachment behavior.

29. Temperament

Temperament: An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding emotionally.

It describes how a person typically reacts.

Three Basic Categories

1. Easy

2. Difficult

3. Slow-to-warm-up

30. Temperament Can Change

Temperament is not necessarily fixed.

Children can show different patterns as they grow.

The lecture's example followed temperament from 4 months → 4 years.

Some infants who were:

• Fearful at 4 months later became positive.

• Positive at 4 months later became fearful.

• Some remained relatively consistent.

• Others were variable, sometimes fearful and sometimes not.

Key Point:

Temperament can remain somewhat stable, but it can also change over time.

Chapter Notes: Gender, Emotional Development, Play, Parenting & Social Development

PART 1: Gender Development in Early Childhood

1. Sex vs. Gender

Sex

• Refers to biological differences.

• Includes biological characteristics such as sex chromosomes and reproductive organs.

Gender

• Refers to characteristics and expectations associated with being male or female.

Sex Differences

• Biological differences between males and females.

• Example: reproductive organs.

Gender Identity

• A person's sense of being male or female.

• Most children develop gender identity by about age 3.

Gender Differences

• Sets of expectations about how males and females should act, think, and feel.

2. Gender Roles in Early Childhood

During the preschool years, children increasingly behave according to the gender roles of their culture.

Examples:

• Choosing toys associated with their gender

• Choosing certain clothing

• Believing certain occupations are for one gender

Around Age 4

Children may believe:

• Trucks are for boys.

• Dolls are for girls.

• Certain occupations are "for" one sex.

⚠ Children may have these beliefs even though they don't understand the biological differences between sexes.

3. Freud's Psychodynamic Theory of Gender

Freud believed preschool children develop an attraction toward the opposite-sex parent.

Oedipus Complex

• Freud's term for boys' attraction toward their mothers.

Electra Complex

• Freud's term for girls' attraction toward their fathers.

Freud believed children eventually:

1. Develop attraction toward the opposite-sex parent.

2. Identify with the same-sex parent.

3. Begin adopting the same-sex parent's gender roles.

Important:

Many psychologists consider Freud's explanation unscientific and it is not strongly supported by modern research.

4. Social Cognitive Theory of Gender

Social cognitive theory: Children develop gender behaviors by observing and imitating others.

Children observe:

• Parents

• Teachers

• Peers

• Media

• Other adults

They may receive:

• Rewards for gender-appropriate behaviors

• Punishment/rejection for behaviors viewed as gender-inappropriate

Example

A girl plays gently with a doll → parent praises her.

A boy cries → parent tells him that "big boys don't cry."

➡ These reactions can teach children what their culture considers appropriate gender behavior.

5. Parents and Gender Roles

Parents are often children's earliest gender-role models.

In some cultures:

• Girls may be encouraged to be more obedient/responsible.

• Girls may face more restrictions.

• Fathers may spend more time or activities with sons.

• Fathers may place more emphasis on sons' intellectual development.

⚠ These patterns do not apply to all families or cultures.

Development is influenced by:

• Culture

• Values

• Beliefs

• Family environment

6. Peers and Gender Roles

Peers also reinforce gender behaviors.

• Children may reward behaviors considered appropriate for their gender.

• Children may reject or tease peers who behave outside expected gender roles.

Example

• Girls playing with dolls may be accepted by other girls.

• A boy playing with a doll may be rejected by peers if the group's culture considers it inappropriate.

7. Same-Sex Playmates

Around Age 3

Children begin showing a preference for playing with same-sex peers.

During preschool and elementary school:

• Girls often play with girls.

• Boys often play with boys.

This pattern generally changes around age 12, partly because of puberty and increased attraction.

Around Age 5

Boys are more likely to:

• Play in larger groups

• Participate in organized group games

• Engage in rough-and-tumble play

• Participate in competition

Girls are more likely to:

• Play in smaller groups, often 2–3 children

• Participate in collaborative play

• Use more give-and-take interaction

PART 2: Emotional Development in Early Childhood

8. Emotional Regulation

Emotional regulation: The ability to control and manage emotional reactions.

Ages 2–6

Controlling emotions is an important psychosocial task.

Good emotional regulation helps children:

• Control behavior

• Describe feelings

• Express emotions appropriately

• Develop friendships

• Fit into social groups

9. Three Factors Affecting Emotional Regulation

1. Maturation

• Emotional regulation improves as children:

  • Get older

  • Develop cognitively

• It is a lifelong process.

2. Learning

Children learn strategies for managing emotions from:

• Parents

• Teachers

• Other adults

• Other children

3. Culture

Culture influences how children are taught to express emotions.

Examples:

• In the United States, children may be encouraged to be brave when facing challenges.

• In Japan, children may be encouraged to be humble and not brag.

➡ Culture affects emotional regulation.

PART 3: Self-Concept & Erikson

10. Self-Concept

Self-concept: A child's understanding of who they are.

It includes:

• Appearance

• Personality

• Traits

• Self-esteem

• Characteristics

Early Childhood

Young children often describe themselves using:

• Shape

• Color

• Size

Example:

"I have black hair."

"I'm taller than him."

Around Age 6

Children begin describing:

• Personality

• Emotions

• Characteristics

Example:

"I'm always happy."

➡ As children mature, their self-concepts become more complex.

11. Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt

Early childhood psychosocial crisis

Initiative

Children begin realizing:

• They are their own person.

• They can make decisions.

• They can start activities.

• They can lead others.

Successful development → sense of purpose

Guilt

If children feel that their attempts are wrong or unacceptable, they may develop:

• Guilt

• Fear of trying new things

Play is Important

Children use play to:

• Initiate activities

• Make up games

• Practice leadership

• Interact with other children

• Make decisions

12. Protective Optimism

Protective optimism: Young children's tendency to quickly move past failures and confidently try again.

Children have a lot of energy and often:

• Forget failures quickly

• Try new activities

• Approach challenges with optimism

➡ This optimism helps support initiative.

PART 4: Play

13. Importance of Play

Play is:

• Exciting

• Enjoyable

• Universal

• Important for development

Children around the world have played for thousands of years.

Freud & Erikson

Play helps children:

• Manage anxiety

• Work through conflicts

• Release tension

• Cope with problems

Piaget

Play is a child's "work."

It helps children:

• Practice cognitive skills

• Explore ideas

• Develop thinking

Play Also Develops:

• Curiosity

• Creativity

• Language

• Communication

• Social skills

Example:
A child uses a stick as a pretend horse.

➡ Imaginative play allows children to create pretend situations.

14. Play and Social Skills

When children play together, they must:

• Communicate

• Negotiate rules

• Decide whose turn it is

• Assign roles

• Cooperate

Example:
Children playing hide-and-seek must decide:

• Rules

• Who is "it"

• Whose turn it is

15. Mildred Parten's Six Stages of Play

1. Unoccupied Play

• Babies/young children explore materials around them.

• They practice:

  • Manipulating objects

  • Self-control

  • Understanding their environment

2. Solitary Play

• Child plays alone.

• No social interaction with other children.

• Allows children to develop:

  • Motor skills

  • Cognitive skills

  • Personal skills

3. Onlooker Play

• Child watches other children play.

• Does not join the activity.

Children learn:

• Social rules

• Ways to play

• How relationships work

4. Parallel Play

• Children play next to each other.

• They may do the same activity but don't really interact.

Example:
Two children coloring beside each other without talking.

5. Associative Play

• Children begin playing together.

• They become interested in one another.

• They begin using social skills.

6. Cooperative Play

• Children actively cooperate.

• They:

  • Share

  • Take turns

  • Establish rules

  • Work toward group goals

  • Negotiate

Easy order to remember:

Unoccupied → Solitary → Onlooker → Parallel → Associative → Cooperative

PART 5: Screen Time & Media

16. Screen Time

Screen time: Time spent using:

• Television

• Movies

• Computers

• Video games

• Smartphones

Children are increasingly spending more time with screens and less time playing.

Too Much Screen Time Can Be Associated With:

• Less conversation

• Less imagination

• Less outdoor activity

• Less active play

• Poorer sleep habits

• Less interaction with peers

• Increased childhood obesity

• Higher levels of aggression

Recommendation

The lecture states that the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends no more than 1 hour per day of screen time for children ages 2–6.

17. Violent Media

Children can be exposed to violence through:

• Television

• Video games

• Music videos

Research has found an association between greater exposure to violent media and higher levels of physical aggression.

Parents and Media

Parents who monitor children's screen time may see:

• More sleep

• Better school performance

• Less aggressive behavior

PART 6: Parenting Styles

18. Diana Baumrind

Diana Baumrind studied parenting styles and their effects on child development.

She identified four major parenting styles:

1. Permissive

2. Authoritative

3. Authoritarian

4. Neglectful

19. Permissive Parenting

High involvement + low demands/control

Characteristics:

• Very involved with child

• Few rules

• Few demands

• Little discipline

• Low expectations

• Child is often allowed to do what they want

Possible Effects

Children may:

• Have difficulty with self-control

• Be egocentric

• Have difficulty respecting others

• Have unsatisfactory peer relationships

20. Authoritative Parenting

High involvement + reasonable limits

Characteristics:

• Encourages independence

• Sets limits

• Uses rules

• Allows verbal communication/give-and-take

• Flexible

• Acts as a guide

When discipline is used:

• Parent explains what was wrong.

• Parent explains what should have been done differently.

Possible Effects

Children tend to:

• Be cheerful

• Have good self-control

• Cope well with stress

• Maintain positive relationships with peers

Remember:

Authoritative = Warm + rules + guidance

21. Authoritarian Parenting

High control + strict demands

Characteristics:

• "I make the rules."

• Expects obedience

• Demands respect

• Strict rules

• High standards

• Punishment for misconduct

• Little emotional discussion

• Limited affection

Possible Effects

Children may:

• Be unhappy

• Have weaker communication skills

• Become rebellious

• Be quick to blame/punish others

Remember:

Authoritarian = Strict control

22. Neglectful Parenting

Low involvement + low control

Characteristics:

• Parent is uninvolved

• Child may feel unimportant

• Child largely does what they want

Possible Effects

Children may:

• Have low self-esteem

• Have poor social skills

• Be immature

• Show delinquent behaviors

Remember:

Neglectful = Little involvement

⭐ Parenting Style Quick Chart

PART 7: Discipline

23. Misbehavior

Misbehavior is a normal part of childhood.

Children may:

• Not know better

• Ignore requests

• Deliberately break rules

• Do something dangerous or mean

Parents need to respond when children misbehave.

24. Corporal Punishment

Corporal punishment: Physical punishment, such as spanking.

• May decrease unwanted behavior temporarily.

• Research discussed in the lecture found that spanking can be associated with more later disobedience.

• Children who aren't spanked may be more likely to develop self-control.

Cross-Cultural Differences

• Corporal punishment has been viewed differently across cultures and countries.

• The lecture notes that many countries have outlawed physical punishment.

25. Time-Out

Time-out: Child sits quietly without toys or playmates for a short period as punishment.

• Common method of discipline in the United States.

• Works best when the child is removed from something they actually enjoy.

Example

If a child doesn't want to participate in an activity and is placed in time-out for refusing, the time-out may not discourage the behavior because the child didn't want to participate anyway.

26. Induction

Induction: Parent discusses the child's misbehavior and helps the child understand why the behavior was wrong.

Example:

• "Why is your brother upset?"

• "Why did you hit him?"

• "What could you have done instead?"

• "How can you make it better?"

Key Point:

Induction requires:

• Time

• Patience

• Communication

PART 8: Child Maltreatment

27. Child Maltreatment

Child abuse and neglect can have long-term effects on development and well-being.

The lecture identifies four major types:

1. Physical Abuse

Intentional physical force that causes or can cause injury.

Examples include:

• Hitting

• Kicking

• Shaking

• Burning

2. Neglect

Failure to meet a child's basic physical or emotional needs.

Examples:

• Food

• Housing

• Clothing

• Education

• Medical care

• Emotional support

3. Sexual Abuse

Pressuring or forcing a child to participate in sexual activity.

4. Emotional Abuse

Behaviors that harm a child's:

• Self-worth

• Emotional well-being

Examples:

• Name-calling

• Shaming

• Rejection

• Withholding love

• Threatening

28. Factors Associated With Child Maltreatment

There is no single cause.

Possible contributing factors include:

• Parenting stress

• Marital/family problems

• Substance misuse

• Poverty

The lecture notes that poverty can increase family stress, which can contribute to risk.

Effects on Development

Child maltreatment can be associated with:

• Lower cognitive development

• Lower school engagement

• Social difficulties

• Mental and physical health problems later in life

PART 9: Middle & Late Childhood

29. Developing Self-Concept

As children grow, their self-descriptions become more complex.

Early Childhood

Children describe themselves using:

• Shape

• Size

• Color

Middle/Late Childhood

Children begin using psychological characteristics and traits.

Examples:

• "I'm smart."

• "I'm helpful."

• "I'm popular."

• "I'm nice."

They also begin describing themselves through social groups.

Examples:

• "I'm a Girl Scout."

• "I'm Taylor's best friend."

• "I'm part of this group."

30. Social Comparison

Around Age 7+

Children increasingly compare themselves with other children.

They may think about:

• Their abilities

• Their skills

• How popular they are

• How they compare with peers

Example:

"I'm the best baseball player on my team."

Children begin realizing that other people may have similar skills and may want to stand out within their peer group.

31. Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority

Middle/Late Childhood

The major goal changes from simply trying new things to mastering skills.

Children work to become competent at:

• Reading

• Math

• Sports

• Building things

• Cooking

• Schoolwork

Industry

Successfully mastering skills → feeling productive and capable

Inferiority

Difficulty mastering skills → feeling:

• Incompetent

• Inferior

• Less capable than peers

Easy way to remember:

Industry = "I can do it!"
Inferiority = "I'm not good enough."

32. Self-Esteem

Self-esteem: Confidence in one's own worth or abilities.

The foundation begins during:

• Infancy

• Early childhood

Secure Attachment

Children with secure attachments are more likely to develop higher self-esteem because they feel:

• Supported

• Trusted

• Encouraged

Neglect/Abuse

Children who experience neglect or abuse are more likely to have lower self-esteem.

School Achievement

Success in school can increase self-esteem because children experience:

• Achievement

• Competence

• Success

Too High vs. Too Low

Too high:

• Arrogance

• Feeling superior

Too low:

• Insecurity

• Feelings of inferiority

33. Emotional Development in Middle/Late Childhood

Children develop stronger emotional self-regulation.

Improved Emotional Understanding

Children become better at understanding complex emotions such as:

• Pride

• Shame

• Anxiety

• Joy

These emotions become more self-generated rather than depending entirely on other people's reactions.

Multiple Emotions

Children understand they can experience more than one emotion at the same time.

Example:

• A child may feel anxious during a spelling bee but joyful after winning.

Understanding Causes

Children become better at recognizing what caused their emotions.

Example:

• "I'm sad because my friend moved away last week."

Managing Negative Emotions

Children become better at redirecting negative emotions.

They may:

• Take deep breaths

• Talk to someone

• Calm themselves down

Empathy

Children develop more genuine empathy.

Empathy: Understanding or sharing another person's emotional experience.

PART 10: Friendship

34. Importance of Friendship

Friendship becomes very important during middle childhood.

Children learn things from peers that adults cannot always teach them.

Child Culture

Child culture: Shared attitudes, sayings, clothing styles, behaviors, and interests that are common among groups of children.

Children want to:

• Join peer groups

• Fit in

• Participate in shared activities

35. Similarity in Friendships

Children's friendships are often based on similarity.

Friends are often similar in:

• Age

• Sex

• Race

• Interests

• Attitudes

• School experiences

Example:
An 8-year-old who loves softball may seek out other children around the same age who also enjoy softball.

36. Six Functions of Friendship

1. Companionship

• Familiar partner

• Playmate

• Someone to spend time with

2. Stimulation

• Provides:

  • Interesting information

  • Excitement

  • Amusement

3. Physical Support

• Friends help each other navigate their environment.

4. Ego Support

• Encouragement and feedback

• Helps children maintain a positive view of themselves

• Helps them understand where they fit in socially

5. Social Comparison

• Helps children determine how they compare with others.

6. Affection and Intimacy

• Close, trusting relationship

• Children may share:

  • Secrets

  • Private thoughts

  • Feelings

➡ More intimate friendships usually develop toward the end of middle childhood and into adolescence.

PART 11: Bullying

37. Bullying

Bullying: Repeatedly harming or intimidating someone who is unable or unlikely to defend themselves.

Bullying occurs across:

• Countries

• Communities

• Schools

38. Four Types of Bullying

1. Physical Bullying

Using physical actions to hurt someone.

Examples:

• Hitting

• Pinching

• Shoving

• Kicking

2. Verbal Bullying

Using words to harm someone.

Examples:

• Teasing

• Taunting

• Name-calling

3. Relational Bullying

Trying to damage someone's relationships or social status.

Examples:

• Excluding someone

• Damaging friendships

• Attacking social acceptance

4. Cyberbullying

Using electronic technology to harm or harass another person.

Examples:

• Online harassment

• Harmful messages/posts

39. Who May Be Vulnerable to Bullying?

A child may be targeted because of:

• Emotional vulnerability

• Social rejection

• Being new to a school

• Poverty

• Cultural/background differences

Important:

Bullies are not necessarily unpopular.

Some may be socially popular because bullying can give them a sense of social dominance or authority.

As children get older, bullying may become less physical and more:

• Verbal

• Social

• Indirect

40. Effects of Bullying

Bullying can have serious effects on children's:

• Emotional well-being

• Social development

• School experiences

• Mental health

Children who experience bullying have been found to have higher risks of mental-health difficulties.

Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying can be especially difficult because:

• It can continue outside of school.

• Children may encounter it through phones/social media.

• There may be less opportunity to escape the bullying.

41. Children Who Bully

Children who engage in cyberbullying have been associated with:

• Increased loneliness

• Lower self-esteem

• Fewer mutual friendships

• Lower peer popularity

➡ Bullying can therefore be connected to difficulties for both the target and the child doing the bullying.

HDFS 1351 — Exam 2 Study Guide

Chapter 5 — The First Two Years: Biosocial Development

1. Average Growth Pattern: Height & Weight

• Infants grow very rapidly during the first year.

• Growth slows down during the second year.

• Growth is not perfectly consistent; infants may grow in spurts.

• Genetics, nutrition, health, and environment can all influence growth.

2. Growth Patterns in Infants

• Height/length: Rapid growth during infancy, then growth slows.

• Weight: Babies typically gain weight quickly during the first year and then the rate slows.

• Growth usually follows a predictable pattern, but every infant develops somewhat differently.

3. Percentiles

A percentile compares an infant's growth measurement with other children of the same age and sex.

Example:

• A baby at the 75th percentile for weight weighs more than about 75% of babies in the comparison group and less than about 25%.

Important: Being at a higher or lower percentile does not automatically mean something is wrong. Doctors look at the overall growth pattern over time.

4. Breastfeeding

Advantages for the baby:

• Provides important nutrients.

• Contains antibodies that help support the baby's immune system.

• Can help protect against some infections and illnesses.

• Provides nutrition that is specifically suited to infants.

Advantages for the mother:

• Can help the uterus return toward its pre-pregnancy size.

• Can be convenient and less expensive than formula.

• Can support bonding between mother and baby.

• Breastfeeding uses additional energy.

5. Reflexes

A reflex is an automatic, involuntary response to a particular stimulus.

Examples:

• Rooting reflex: Baby turns toward something touching their cheek.

• Sucking reflex: Baby automatically sucks when something touches their mouth.

• Moro reflex: Baby reacts to a sudden loss of support or loud stimulus by suddenly moving their arms/body.

• Grasping reflex: Baby automatically closes their fingers around something placed in their palm.

6. Gross vs. Fine Motor Skills

Gross motor skills

• Use the large muscles of the body.

• Examples: sitting, crawling, walking, running.

Fine motor skills

• Use small muscles, especially in the hands and fingers.

• Examples: picking up small objects, grasping, drawing.

Easy way to remember:
Gross = big movements
Fine = small, precise movements

Chapter 6 — The First Two Years: Cognitive Development

1. Object Permanence

Object permanence = understanding that an object or person continues to exist even when it cannot be seen.

• Begins developing around 8 months.

• By about 2 years, children have a much more complete understanding of object permanence.

Example:
You hide a baby's favorite toy under a blanket. A baby who understands object permanence will look for the toy because they know it still exists.

2. Piaget's First Stage: Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage is the sensorimotor stage.

• Birth to about age 2

• Infants learn about the world through their senses and motor actions.

• They learn by seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and physically interacting with objects.

Important concepts:

Assimilation:
Using existing knowledge to understand something new.

Example: A child sees a horse and calls it a "dog" because both have four legs.

Accommodation:
Changing an existing understanding because of new information.

Example: The child learns that the four-legged animal is actually a horse, not a dog.

Object permanence is a major accomplishment during the sensorimotor stage.

3. Gaze-Following

Gaze-following = the ability to determine where another person is looking by following the direction of their eyes.

Example:

• A parent looks toward a door.

• The baby watches the parent's eyes and then looks toward the door.

Infants can use caregivers' attention to help them learn about their environment.

Natural Pedagogy

Natural pedagogy = social learning in which knowledge or skills are transferred through communication between people.

4. Language Development

Language Milestones

Important distinction:

Children generally understand more words than they can say.

Babbling

Babbling is important because it:

• Practices mouth movements.

• Helps prepare infants for speaking.

• Acts as a building block for later language.

Child-Directed Speech

Also called "baby talk."

Adults tend to:

• Use a higher pitch.

• Speak more slowly.

• Use simple words and sentences.

• Repeat words.

This can help capture an infant's attention and support language development.

Recasting

An adult rephrases a child's short or incorrect statement into a more complete sentence.

Example:

• Child: "Dog bark."

• Adult: "Yes, you heard the dog barking."

Labeling

Naming objects that interest the child.

Example:

• "That's a ball."

Expanding

Adding more information to what a child says.

Example:

• Child: "Ball."

• Adult: "Yes, that's a red ball. We can play with the ball."

Chapter 7 — The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development

1. Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. Mistrust is Erikson's first psychosocial crisis.

• Occurs during infancy.

• Infants develop trust when caregivers consistently provide food, comfort, protection, and responsive care.

• When caregivers are inconsistent or unreliable, infants may develop mistrust.

Main idea:

Consistent, responsive caregiving → trust

2. Emotional Development in Infants

Smiling

Social smile:

• Appears around 6 weeks.

• Evoked by seeing human faces.

Laughter

• Usually appears around 3–4 months.

• Often connected with curiosity and positive interactions.

Why do infants cry?

Crying is a form of communication.

Infants may cry because they are:

• Hungry

• Tired

• Uncomfortable

• In pain/distress

• Seeking attention or comfort

Two Important Types of Fear

Stranger anxiety/wariness

• Fear or distress around unfamiliar people.

• Often emerges around 9 months.

Separation anxiety

• Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves.

• Can involve crying, anger, or dismay.

3. Attachment

What is attachment?

Attachment = a close emotional bond between two people.

Attachment:

• Is universal.

• Is mutual.

• Provides infants with a sense of security.

• Helps infants feel confident enough to explore their environment.

Important Attachment Theorists

Freud

• Believed attachment developed through oral satisfaction.

Harry Harlow

• Studied attachment using infant monkeys.

• Demonstrated the importance of physical contact and comfort, not just food.

Erik Erikson

• Connected attachment to trust vs. mistrust.

John Bowlby

• Believed infants and caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments.

4. Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation is an observational procedure used to study infant attachment.

The infant experiences:

1. Being with their caregiver.

2. Separation from the caregiver.

3. Reunion with the caregiver.

Researchers observe how the infant reacts.

Ainsworth's Four Attachment Patterns

1. Secure Attachment

• Uses caregiver as a secure base.

• Comfortable exploring.

• May become upset when caregiver leaves.

• Is comforted when caregiver returns.

Key word: SECURITY

2. Insecure-Avoidant

• Avoids or ignores the caregiver.

• May appear independent.

• Does not seek much contact after separation.

Key word: AVOID

3. Insecure-Resistant

• Clings to caregiver.

• Becomes very upset when caregiver leaves.

• May resist comfort when caregiver returns.

Key word: CLING

4. Insecure-Disorganized

• Shows confused, contradictory, or disoriented behaviors.

• May appear uncertain about how to respond to the caregiver.

Key word: CONFUSED

5. Temperament

Temperament = an individual's characteristic behavioral style and way of responding emotionally.

Three basic temperament types:

• Easy

• Difficult

• Slow-to-warm-up

Is temperament genetic or environmental?

Both.

Temperament has a biological/genetic component, but experiences and the environment can also influence how temperament develops and is expressed.

Chapter 10 — Psychosocial Development in Early & Middle Childhood

1. Gender

Sex Differences

Biological differences between males and females.

Gender Identity

A person's sense of being male or female.

• Most children develop gender identity by around age 3.

Gender Differences

The social expectations for how males and females should act, think, and feel.

Social Cognitive Theory of Gender

Children develop gender behaviors by:

• Observing others.

• Imitating others.

• Receiving rewards or punishments for behaviors.

Influences include:

• Parents

• Peers

• Schools

• Culture

• Media

2. Emotional Regulation

Emotional regulation = the ability to manage and control emotional reactions and behavior.

It becomes especially important during ages 2–6.

Three factors affecting emotional regulation:

1. Maturation

2. Learning

3. Culture

Example: A child learns to calm down by taking deep breaths instead of immediately yelling.

3. Self-Concept

Self-concept = a child's understanding of who they are, including their characteristics, personality, abilities, and appearance.

Development:

Early childhood:
Children describe themselves using physical characteristics.

Example:
"I'm tall and I have brown hair."

Later childhood:
Children increasingly describe themselves using psychological traits and social characteristics.

Example:
"I'm funny, smart, and helpful."

4. Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt

This is Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood.

Children begin to:

• Make plans.

• Start activities.

• Make decisions.

• Lead others.

• Explore what kind of person they want to become.

Successful outcome:

Initiative → sense of purpose

Negative outcome:

Too much guilt → fear of trying new things

Important concept: Protective Optimism

Young children often recover quickly from failures and remain confident enough to try again.

5. Four Parenting Styles

Easy way to remember:

Permissive = "Do whatever you want."

Authoritative = "Here's the limit; let's talk about it."

Authoritarian = "Because I said so."

Neglectful = "I'm not involved."

⚠ Don't confuse authoritative and authoritarian.

6. Types of Punishment

Corporal Punishment

Physical punishment, such as spanking.

Time-Out

Child is temporarily removed from an enjoyable activity or interaction.

Induction

Parent explains why the behavior was wrong and discusses consequences and better choices.

Example:

• "Why is your brother crying?"

• "Why did you hit him?"

• "What could you have done instead?"

Chapter 13 — Middle Childhood: The Social World

1. Social Comparison

Social comparison = comparing yourself with other people to evaluate your own abilities, characteristics, or status.

Example:

"I'm better at baseball than Michael."

Children increasingly use social comparison during middle childhood.

2. Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority

This is Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis.

Industry

Children work to:

• Learn new skills.

• Complete tasks.

• Become productive.

• Master academic and practical abilities.

Successful mastery → feeling competent and industrious

Inferiority

When children repeatedly feel unable to master skills or compare themselves negatively with others, they may feel inferior or incompetent.

Easy memory:

Industry = "I can do it!"
Inferiority = "I'm not good enough."

3. Self-Esteem in Middle Childhood

Self-esteem = confidence in one's own worth or abilities.

Self-esteem is influenced by:

• Parent-child relationships

• Attachment

• School achievement

• Success in activities

• Comparisons with peers

Secure attachment

→ More likely to develop higher self-esteem

Neglect/abuse

→ Associated with lower self-esteem

Important:

The goal is a healthy/middle level of self-esteem.

Very high → may involve arrogance/superiority.
Very low → insecurity/inferiority.

4. Types of Bullying

Physical Bullying

Using physical actions to hurt someone.

Examples:

• Hitting

• Kicking

• Shoving

• Pinching

Verbal Bullying

Using words to hurt or intimidate someone.

Examples:

• Teasing

• Taunting

• Name-calling

Relational Bullying

Trying to damage someone's relationships or social status.

Examples:

• Excluding someone

• Spreading social rejection

• Trying to damage someone's friendships

Cyberbullying

Using electronic technology to harm or harass someone.

Examples:

• Online harassment

• Harmful messages

• Using social media to target someone