Early Christianity, the Fall of Rome, and Constantine

  • Early Christianity and its Beginnings
    • Christianity was a small, largely underground, and illegal religion in its early centuries, starting in the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean).
    • Few Christian artifacts exist before the 4th century CE due to its small size and clandestine nature; open practice, temples, or much iconography were not possible.
  • Evolution of Christian Iconography
    • Christian iconography, as commonly understood, began to develop around the 3rd century CE.
  • Factors Contributing to the Fall of the Roman Empire
    • Invasions: By groups such as the Goths, Vandals, and Germans.
    • Decline of Slave Trade: It waned as Rome's military victories decreased, as slaves were usually obtained through conquest.
    • Internal Divisions: The empire was divided into East and West, leading to disputes over resources and security.
    • Military Issues:
    • The Roman army increasingly comprised people from territories, including former 'barbarians' attracted by good pay and benefits.
    • As the empire weakened, the loyalty of these soldiers diminished, often leading them to fight against Rome.
    • Struggles with troop numbers, loyalty, and discipline were prevalent.
    • Political Instability: Widespread political turmoil.
    • Rise of Christianity: Played a role by weakening the emperor's traditional authority.
  • Shift in Power Dynamics: Religious vs. Political Authority
    • Historically, from ancient Sumeria to ancient Egypt, political and religious power were concentrated in the same person (e.g., Augustus as Pontifex Maximus, Chief Priest of Rome).
    • Christianity's rise as a major religion in the Roman Empire created a split between religious and political power.
    • This presented a challenge for Roman emperors, who were no longer seen as the ultimate authority in all aspects, facing a new rival power in the head of the Christian church (a conflict ongoing into the Renaissance).
  • Early Christian Art: Transformation and Context
    • It represents the transformation of late classical Roman visual vocabulary into an early Christian context.
    • Abrahamic Religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all originate from the patriarch Abraham, acknowledge Jesus, and the House of David, stemming from a common root.
    • Figural Art Tradition:
    • Christianity is unique among the three Abrahamic religions in having a robust figural art tradition (Unlike Islam, which famously prohibits depictions of prophets, and Judaism, which also lacks a strong figural tradition).
    • This distinctiveness stems from its emergence within the Roman Empire, where Roman citizens (largely Christians) were accustomed to figural art.
    • Despite biblical admonitions against 'graven images' and worshipping 'golden gods' (Old Testament), Christianity generally adopted a positive relationship with figural traditions.
    • New Worship Contexts: Christian appropriations included:
    • Basilica Form: The architectural form of Roman basilicas (e.g., Basilica of Trajan) was co-opted for Christian churches.
    • Abstracted Depictions: A move away from the naturalism characteristic of earlier Roman Empire art towards increasingly abstracted human forms.
  • Constantinople and Constantine's Reign
    • Constantinople: Modern-day Istanbul, located on the Bosphorus Strait (between Asia and Europe). Constantine founded it and named it after himself.
    • Constantine I (Emperor from 306−337306-337 CE):
    • First Christian Emperor: Converted after a dream before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, where he saw the sign of the cross and heard "under this sign, you will conquer."
    • Edict of Milan (313313 CE): Decriminalized Christianity and all other non-pagan religions in the Roman Empire, granting religious tolerance.
    • New Capital: Moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople, a strategic political and military decision to be closer to the Eastern border where the Persians posed a threat.
    • Consolidation of Power: Defeated his co-emperor, ending the Tetrarchy, to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.
  • Arch of Constantine (312−315312-315 CE)
    • Architectural Shift: Unlike the single-opening Arch of Titus, Constantine's arch features three openings, with a larger central arch flanked by two smaller ones.
    • Purpose: Erected for a military victory, serving as a permanent evocation.
    • Construction Materials: Reflected the empire's financial state; made of brick-faced concrete covered in marble panels, a significantly cheaper method than solid marble structures seen previously.
    • Borrowed Artworks: Constantine notably appropriated artworks from monuments of 'good emperors' from the past (e.g., Marcus Aurelius, Hadrian, Trajan).
    • Examples: Two scenes from a monument to Marcus Aurelius (circa 176176 CE), roundels from a monument to Hadrian, and Dacian captives from a monument to Trajan.
    • Significance: This was a conscious effort to visually connect himself to the esteemed tradition of these successful emperors, aiming to portray himself as a worthy successor.
    • Original Artworks: Constantine's Distribution of Largess
    • Depicts Constantine (whose head was chiseled away, but would have been hierarchically scaled largest) distributing gifts to petitioners, showcasing his generosity.
    • Stylistic Differences: Original Constantinian art (like 'Distribution of Largess') contrasts sharply with the earlier borrowed works:
      • Hierarchical Scale: Returns prominence (larger figures denote more importance).
      • Rigidity and Frontality: Lacks the complexity and spatial movement of high Roman art; figures are more rigid and frontal, reminiscent of ancient Near Eastern styles.
      • Clear Messaging: Aimed for direct, clear political and moral messages (e.g., 'good emperor, generous giver') over artistic beauty or narrative detail.
      • Comparison: The borrowed Hadrianic roundels show high detail, depth, and movement, embodying 'high Roman art,' while Constantine's original art appears 'cruder' but served a deliberate communicative purpose.
    • Coexistence of Styles: It is crucial to note that these distinct artistic styles existed concurrently, even on the same monument (Arch of Constantine), reflecting deliberate stylistic choices rather than a uniform artistic decline.
  • Theological Debates and the Council of Nicaea
    • Constantine's legalization of Christianity did not immediately lead to unity; Christian theologians engaged in intense debates, both with non-believers and amongst themselves.
    • Nature of Christ (3rd-4th centuries CE): A central theological debate concerned whether Christ was fully human, fully divine, or both.
    • Arianism vs. Athanasius:
    • Arius (Libyan priest in Egypt): Argued that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were not of one substance, and Christ was fully human, not divine (i.e., he died and did not resurrect as God).
    • Athanasius: Insisted on the unity and consubstantiality of the three persons of the Trinity.
    • Monotheism and the Trinity: The concept of the Trinity (God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit) reconciled monotheism with early Christian beliefs in a pantheistic world.
    • Council of Nicaea (325325 CE):
    • Convened by Constantine to address the theological disputes (particularly Arianism) and establish a uniform Christian doctrine.
    • Resulted in the Nicene Creed, affirming the Trinity as one substance and declaring dissenting views (like Arianism) as heresy.
  • Roman Catacombs: Underground Cemeteries
    • Definition: Underground cemeteries, often extensively mapped.
    • Structure: Narrow, street-like tunnels with niches carved into the walls (loculi) for bodies, wrapped in linen, and sometimes larger chambers for small funeral rites (larger funerals held above ground).
    • Scale: Some systems extend for 6060 to 9090 miles, akin to 'cities of the dead.'
    • Misconception: Not 'secret, culty spaces' as depicted by 19th19^{th}-century Gothic writers, but publicly known burial sites.
    • Etymology: Derived from Latin 'ad catacombas,' meaning 'in the hollows.'
    • Family Vaults (Cubicula): Prominent families could have entire rooms within the catacombs for collective family burials.
    • Lunettes: Crescent- or half-moon-shaped architectural spaces, often found in domes, frequently decorated.
  • Early Christian Imagery and Symbolism (circa Constantine's time)
    • The Good Shepherd & Jonah: Two highly important figures in early Christian art.
    • Jonah and the Whale:
    • Jonah's emergence from the whale's belly was a crucial prefiguration of Christ's resurrection from the tomb after three days.
    • Frequently depicted in early Christian imagery.
    • The Good Shepherd:
    • Before Christianity was legalized in 313313 CE, Christian imagery often used motifs that could be interpreted as pagan by Romans to avoid persecution.
    • Syncretism/Dual Interpretation:
      • Pagan Interpretation: Could be seen as the god Apollo, Hermes, or Orpheus (a shepherd figure).
      • Jewish Interpretation: Could represent the shepherd figure mentioned in the Psalms.
      • Christian Interpretation: A representation of Christ from the parable of the lost sheep (John 10:11−1610:11-16: "I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep.")
    • Early Depiction of Christ: Typically shown as a young, unbearded figure, resembling Roman gods who were often clean-shaven.
    • Angels: Early Christian angels were drawn from Roman mythology (like cupids or putti), often depicted as plump babies, rather than the terrifying, multi-eyed, winged beings described in the Bible.
    • Grapevines: Common in early Christian imagery, as they could be reinterpreted as Roman motifs, but also symbolized Christ's miracle of turning water into wine.
  • Evolution of Christ's Iconography Post-Legalization
    • After Christianity became the official religion, Christ's depiction evolved to reflect imperial attributes:
    • He gained a beard, a halo, a purple robe, and was often seated on a throne.
    • His image transformed from a youthful shepherd to a more mature, authoritative man.classList.remove()The Orant Figure:
    • Refers to a prayer posture with upraised hands, common in early Christian worship.
    • This gesture is still used in certain Christian denominations today.