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The growth of modern nationalism in India was intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement, where diverse social groups forged unity through their shared struggle against British colonial rule.

1. The First World War, Khilafat, and Non-Cooperation

  1. Impact of the First World War

    • Economic Distress: Huge increase in defense expenditure financed by war loans and increased taxes; custom duties were raised and income tax was introduced.
    • Price Rise: Extreme inflation between 1913 and 1918 doubled the prices of basic commodities, causing extreme hardship for common people.
    • Forced Recruitment: Villagers were forcibly recruited into the British Indian Army to fight overseas.
    • Famines and Epidemics: Crop failure in 1918–19 and 1920–21 led to severe food shortages, accompanied by an influenza epidemic that killed millions.

  2. The Idea of Satyagraha

    • Philosophy: Emphasized the power of truth and the need to search for truth. Mahatma Gandhi believed that if the cause was true and the struggle was against injustice, physical force was not necessary to defeat the oppressor.
    • Early Experiments:
    • Champaran (1917): Supported indigo farmers against the oppressive plantation system in Bihar.
    • Kheda (1917): Supported peasants affected by crop failure and plague who could not pay revenue in Gujarat.
    • Ahmedabad (1918): Organized a satyagraha movement among cotton mill workers demanding wage increases.

  3. The Rowlatt Act (1919)

    • Passed hurriedly through the Imperial Legislative Council despite united Indian opposition.
    • Gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for up to two years.
    • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919): General Dyer blocked exit points of the enclosed ground in Amritsar and opened fire on an unarmed gathering, killing hundreds to "produce a moral effect" of terror.

  4. Khilafat and the Non-Cooperation Resolution

    • Khilafat Issue: Post-WWI rumors indicated that a harsh peace treaty was to be imposed on the Ottoman Emperor (the spiritual head or Khalifa of the Islamic world). Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali formed the Khilafat Committee in Bombay.
    • Adoption: At the Calcutta Session of Congress (September 1920), Gandhi convinced leaders to support Khilafat and launch Non-Cooperation for Swaraj. It was formally adopted at the Nagpur Congress Session in December 1920.
2. Differing Strands within the Movement

  1. Movement in the Towns

    • Middle-class participation: Students left government schools, lawyers gave up practice, and council elections were boycotted (except in Madras by the Justice Party).
    • Economic Impact: Foreign goods boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth burnt; imports halved between 1921 and 1922.
    • Slowdown: Khadi was expensive compared to mass-produced mill cloth, and alternative Indian institutions were slow to develop.

  2. Rebellion in the Countryside

    • Peasant Movement in Awadh: Led by Baba Ramchandra against oppressive talukdars and landlords demanding exorbitant rents. The Oudh Kisan Sabha was formed in 1920 by Jawaharlal Nehru and Baba Ramchandra.
    • Tribal Movement in Gudem Hills (Andhra Pradesh): Led by Alluri Sitaram Raju against forest laws restricting grazing and fuel-wood collection. Used guerrilla warfare inspired by Gandhi's greatness, though advocating violence for liberation.

  3. Swaraj in the Plantations

    • Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, tea garden workers in Assam were not permitted to leave tea estates without permission.
    • Workers defied authorities and left plantations, believing Gandhi Raj would grant them land in their own villages.

  4. Calling off the Movement

    • In February 1922, a peaceful demonstration turned violent at Chauri Chaura (Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh), leading to the burning of a police station and the death of policemen. Gandhi abruptly suspended the Non-Cooperation Movement.
3. Towards Civil Disobedience

  1. Internal Debates & External Factors

    • Swaraj Party: Formed within Congress by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru to argue for entering provincial councils to oppose British policies from within.
    • Simon Commission (1928): Appointed under Sir John Simon to review the constitutional system; opposed across India with the slogan "Go Back Simon" because it did not contain a single Indian member.
    • Lahore Congress (December 1929): Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, formalizing the demand for Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) and declaring 26 January 1930 as Independence Day.

  2. The Salt March and Civil Disobedience

    • On 31 January 1930, Gandhi sent an 11-point demand letter to Viceroy Irwin, with the abolition of the salt tax as the central demand.
    • The Dandi March: Gandhi, accompanied by 78 trusted volunteers, marched 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi. On 6 April 1930, he broke the salt law by boiling seawater.
    • Distinction from Non-Cooperation: People were now asked not only to refuse cooperation but also to break colonial laws deliberately.

  3. Pacts and Relaunch

    • Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931): Gandhi agreed to suspend Civil Disobedience and participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London in exchange for releasing political prisoners.
    • Relaunch: The London conference failed; returning to India, Gandhi found leaders imprisoned and Congress declared illegal, leading to the relaunch of the movement, which gradually lost momentum by 1934.
4. Participation and Limits of the Movement

  1. Social Groups and Their Expectations

    • Rich Peasants (Patidars, Jats): Hit hard by trade depression; fought against high revenue demands.
    • Poor Peasants: Wanted unpaid rent to landlords remitted, but Congress was hesitant to support "no rent" campaigns.
    • Business Classes: Led by industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla; formed FICCI (1927) to protect against foreign imports and colonial currency policies.
    • Women: Participated in large numbers in protest marches, salt manufacture, and picketing.

  2. The Limits of Civil Disobedience

    • Dalit Participation: Many Dalit leaders sought separate electorates. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar clashed with Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference.
    • Poona Pact (September 1932): Compromise between Gandhi and Ambedkar that gave reserved seats to Depressed Classes in provincial and central legislative councils, voted in by a general electorate.
    • Alienation of Muslims: The growing proximity between Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha, combined with disputes over political representation, created a climate of distrust among many Muslim organizations.
5. The Sense of Collective Belonging
  • National Symbols: The image of Bharat Mata first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and later painted by Abanindranath Tagore portrayed calmness and spiritual power.
  • Revival of Folklore: Nationalists recorded folk tales and songs (e.g., Natesa Sastri's The Folklore of Southern India) to restore pride in native heritage.
  • National Flags: The Swadeshi tricolour in Bengal (red, green, yellow) with eight lotuses, followed by Gandhi's 1921 Swaraj flag (red, green, white with a spinning wheel).
  • Reinterpretation of History: Portrayed ancient India as an era of greatness in art, science, and philosophy that declined under foreign invasion, urging Indians to fight to regain past glory.