APHG Exam Notes
1. Introduction to Maps
Learning Target: Identify types of maps, information presented in maps, and spatial patterns/relationships.
Types of Maps:
Reference Maps: Provide general information about places.
Types: Political and Physical maps.
Thematic Maps: Communicate how human activities are distributed.
Types:
Cartogram: Distorts size based on a variable.
Choropleth: Uses color shading to show data distribution.
Dot Density: Uses dots to represent a frequency of a variable.
Isoline: Connects points of equal value.
Proportional Symbol: Uses symbols to represent data values.
Spatial Patterns Represented on a Map:
Absolute and relative distance and direction.
Clustering: Items grouped together.
Dispersal: Items spread over a large area.
Elevation: Measures height above sea level.
Map Projections: Distortion in shape, size, distance, and direction.
Mercator: Accurate shapes, distorted at poles.
Robinson: Small inaccuracies throughout.
Goode's: Accurate continent sizes, distorted distances.
Gall-Peters: Distorted shape, especially near the equator.
2. Geographic Data
Learning Target: Identify methods of geographic data collection.
Geospatial Data: Information about both physical features and human activities.
Geographic Information System (GIS): Captures and displays map-related data.
GPS (Geographic Positioning System): Uses satellites for location accuracy.
Remote Sensing: Captures images of Earth from satellites/airplanes.
Sources of Spatial Information: Written accounts, media reports, narratives, interviews.
3. The Power of Geographic Data
Learning Target: Explain geographical effects of decisions using geographic information.
Census Data: Official population count; USA conducted every 10 years.
4. Spatial Concepts
Learning Target: Define major geographic concepts illustrating spatial relationships.
Absolute Location: Exact coordinates.
Relative Location: Location in relation to other places.
Space: Extent of area; can be absolute or relative.
Place: Unique characteristics of a location.
Distance Decay: Interaction decreases with distance.
Time-Space Compression: Connectivity increases despite physical distance.
Pattern: Regular arrangement of features in an area.
5. Human-Environmental Interaction
Learning Target: Explain major geographic concepts illustrating spatial relationships.
Sustainability: Meeting present needs without compromising future resources.
Natural Resources: Valuable physical material from Earth.
Environmental Determinism: Physical environment impacts social development.
Possibilism: Environment limits human actions, but adjustments are possible.
6. Scales of Analysis
Learning Target: Define scales of analysis used by geographers.
Scale: Relationship between distances on the ground compared to map distances; concepts of global to local.
7. Regional Analysis
Learning Target: Describe ways geographers define regions.
Region: Area smaller than a planet but larger than a point categorized by features.
Formal Region: Based on quantifiable data (e.g., government areas).
Functional Region: Centered around a focal point (e.g., radio broadcasts).
Vernacular Region: A common perception (e.g., the Midwest).
8. Population Distribution
Learning Target: Identify factors influencing human population distribution.
Ecumene: Habitable land; influences on settlement include:
Physical Factors: Climate, terrain.
Cultural Factors: Access to education, healthcare.
Historical Factors: Areas suitable for sustaining life.
Population Density Calculation Methods:
Arithmetic Density: Total population/land area.
Physiological Density: Population per arable land unit.
Agricultural Density: Ratio of farmers to arable land.
9. Consequences of Population Distribution
Learning Target: Explain impacts of population distribution and density.
Areas with higher populations have:
Greater political and economic power.
More extensive access to healthcare and education.
Increased environmental impacts.
Concepts of Carrying Capacity and Overpopulation defined.
10. Population Composition
Learning Target: Describe elements of population composition.
Age/Sex Ratio: Distribution of males and females.
Population Pyramid: Visual representation of population by age/sex.
11. Population Dynamics
Learning Target: Explain factors in contemporary/historical population trends.
Demography terms:
Crude Birth Rate (CBR) and Crude Death Rate (CDR): Births and deaths per 1000.
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): Number of infants dying per 1000 live births.
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): Births - Deaths/10.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average children per woman.
12. The Demographic Transition Model
Learning Target: Explain population growth and decline theories.
Stages:
Stage 1: High CDR due to pestilence.
Stage 2: Receding pandemics; improved sanitation.
Stage 3: Decline of infectious diseases.
Stage 4: Delayed degenerative diseases, lifestyle focus.
13. Malthusian Theory
Learning Target: Explain population growth theories.
Malthus Theory: Population grows geometrically, food arithmetically.
Neo-Malthusian Perspective: Finite resources prompt family planning activism.
14. Population Policies
Learning Target: Explain various population policies.
Antinatalist: Incentives to limit family size.
Pronatalist: Incentives to promote family growth.
Immigration Policies: Regulate influx of immigrants.
15. Women and Demographic Change
Learning Target: Explain demographic changes related to women.
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration: General patterns of migration behavior.
16. Aging Populations
Learning Target: Explain the implications of an aging population.
Dependency Ratio: Non-working vs. working population.
Life Expectancy: Average lifespan estimates in various regions.
17. Causes of Migration
Learning Target: Explain factors driving migration.
Push Factors: Drive individuals away (e.g., conflict, lack of resources).
Pull Factors: Attract individuals to new locations (e.g., job opportunities).
Intervening Opportunities and Obstacles: Factors that alter migration decisions.
18. Forced and Voluntary Migration
Learning Target: Describe types of migration.
Key Concepts: Asylum seekers, chain migration, step migration.
Types of Migration: Forced (compelled) and voluntary (choice-based).
19. Effects of Migration
Learning Target: Explain migration's historical and contemporary effects.
Political Impact: Brain drain phenomenon.
Cultural Impact: Changes in demographic composition.
Economic Impact: Revenue changes based on migration flows.
20. Introduction to Culture
Learning Target: Define key cultural characteristics.
Culture: Composite of traits defining a group.
Material Culture: Tangible aspects like tools, clothing.
Nonmaterial Culture: Intangible aspects such as beliefs, ideas.
21. Cultural Landscapes
Learning Target: Describe cultural landscape characteristics.
Ethnic Neighborhoods: Geographies preserving distinct cultural traits.
Indigenous Communities: Original inhabitants maintaining their cultural identity.
22. Cultural Patterns
Learning Target: Explain language, religion, ethnicity, and gender patterns.
Sense of Place: Deep identity linked to locations.
Language and Religion: Key factors shaping identity and interactions.
23. Types of Diffusion
Learning Target: Define diffusion types.
Relocation Diffusion: Idea transferred via migration.
Expansion Diffusion: Idea spreads in increasing numbers through cultural means.
Contagious, Hierarchical, and Stimulus Diffusion variations explained.
24. Historical Causes of Diffusion
Learning Target: Explain historical forces in cultural patterns.
Colonialism and Imperialism: Processes affecting cultural exchanges and influences.
25. Contemporary Causes of Diffusion
Learning Target: Address globalization impacts.
Media and Technology: Encourage widespread idea diffusion and cultural blending.
26. Diffusion of Religion and Language
Learning Target: Analyze factors in religious and language diffusion.
Indigenous Languages: Importance and risk of extinction.
Universalizing vs. Ethnic Religions: Differences and diffusion methods outlined.
27. Effects of Diffusion
Learning Target: Changes in cultural landscapes due to diffusion.
Acculturation and Assimilation: Processes of adopting or blending cultural traits.
28. Introduction to Political Geography
Learning Target: Define political entities and examples.
State: Political unit with recognized boundaries.
Nation: Group sharing culture and desire for self-rule.
Nation-States, Stateless Nations, and Autonomous Regions defined.
29. Political Processes
Learning Target: Explain processes shaping political geography.
Sovereignty: Authority over territory.
Self-Determination: Independence movements and devolution explained.
30. Political Power and Territoriality
Choke points, neocolonialism, and territoriality concepts discussed.
31. Defining Political Boundaries
Types of boundaries: relic, superimposed, subsequent, antecedent, geometric, consequential.
32. The Function of Political Boundaries
Steps to define and maintain boundaries discussed.
33. Internal Boundaries
Voting district processes including redistricting and gerrymandering explained.
34. Forms of Governance
Differences between unitary and federal states described in relation to spatial organization.
35. Defining Devolutionary Factors
Factors leading to devolution defined; examples of modern cases.
36. Challenges to Sovereignty
Globalization, economic conditions, and challenges to sovereignty explained.
37. Consequences of Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces
Forces influencing national unity discussed.
38. Introduction to Agriculture
Agriculture defined as environmental modification for product management.
39. Agricultural Practices and Patterns
Types of agriculture identified, including market gardening and shifting cultivation.
40. Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods
Clustered, dispersed, and linear settlement patterns; surveying methods identified.
41. Agricultural Origins and Diffusions
Primary centers of domestication discussed with the significance of the Fertile Crescent and Columbian Exchange.
42. The Second Agricultural Revolution
Effects of the second agricultural revolution tying to urban migration and improved diets outlined.
43. The Green Revolution
Impact of the Green Revolution on food supply and biodiversity discussed.
44. Agricultural Production Regions
Economic influences on agriculture practices reviewed.
45. Spatial Organization of Agriculture
Commodity Chain in agriculture discussed.
46. Von Thünen Model
Explaining rural land use through transportation cost discussed.
47. The Global System of Agriculture
Interdependencies in agricultural production and consumption explained.
48. Consequences of Agricultural Practices
Environmental and societal consequences of agricultural practices outlined.
49. Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture
Modern farming issues such as biotechnology and food security discussed.
50. Women in Agriculture
Gender disparities in agricultural roles and impacts highlighted.
51. The Origin and Influences of Urbanization
Urbanization processes and socioeconomic factors driving changes outlined.
52. Cities Across the World
Characterization of megacities and the process of suburbanization outlined.
53. Cities and Globalization
Importance of world cities and global economic network connections discussed.
54. The Size and Distribution of Cities
Concepts of rank-size rule and primate city explained.
55. The Internal Structure of Cities
Various urban models explaining city structures presented.
56. Density and Land Use
Residential land use patterns and housing density characterized.
57. Infrastructure
The role of infrastructure in urban development explained.
58. Urban Sustainability
Urban planning initiatives promoting sustainable practices discussed.
59. Urban Data
Use of qualitative and quantitative data in urban analysis discussed.
60. Challenges of Urban Changes
Issues surrounding gentrification, affordable housing, and income inequalities discussed.
61. Challenges of Urban Sustainability
The push for urban sustainability challenged by growth effects discussed.