Polybius: The Histories & Cicero
Polybius: The Histories
The Forms of State
Difficulty in understanding and predicting the future of the Roman state due to its complex constitution and unfamiliar public and private life.
Most theorists distinguish three types of constitutions: kingship, aristocracy, and democracy.
The best constitution is a combination of all three, as exemplified by Lycurgus's Sparta.
There are six kinds of governments:
Kingship
Aristocracy
Democracy
Monarchy
Oligarchy
Mob-rule.
Monarchy arises naturally, evolving into kingship through art and correction of defects.
Kingship can degenerate into tyranny.
Abolition of monarchy and tyranny leads to aristocracy.
Aristocracy degenerates into oligarchy.
Popular anger against oligarchy leads to democracy.
Democracy's lawlessness results in mob-rule.
Understanding the natural origins and development of each form is crucial to predicting its future.
The Roman constitution's formation and growth have been due to natural causes.
The Causes of Political Change
Plato and other philosophers have discussed the transformations of government forms in detail.
Political societies originate after great destructions of the human race due to floods, famines, or crop failures.
Survivors form herds, and the strongest and most courageous man leads and rules (monarchy).
As feelings of sociability grow, monarchy evolves into kingship, and notions of goodness and justice arise.
People naturally inclined to sexual intercourse and birth of children.
Gratitude and defense of parents is expected.
Ingratitude and mistreatment of parents cause displeasure.
Reason distinguishes humans from animals.
Helping others in danger leads to gratitude, while harming them leads to resentment.
Notion of duty arises from this leading to justice.
Defending fellows from danger leads to honor, while acting opposite leads to dislike.
Ideas of nobility and baseness emerge.
Noble conduct is admired and imitated due to its advantages; base conduct is avoided.
When the leader supports prevailing notions of justice and fairly distributes rewards and penalties, obedience is based on judgment rather than fear.
Monarch becomes a king, with reason superseding ferocity.
The notion of goodness and justice and the beginning and birth of true kingship are naturally formed among men.
Power is maintained in the hands of descendants due to the belief in their similar principles.
Kings are chosen for judgment and reasoning powers, not just bodily strength and courage.
Kings initially focus on security and providing necessities, living modestly without distinguishing themselves from the people.
Hereditary succession leads to indulgence in appetites and the belief that rulers should be distinguished by dress and luxury.
This gives rise to envy, offense, hatred, and resentment, transforming kingship into tyranny.
Conspiracies led by the noblest and most courageous men overthrow the tyranny.
Aristocracy arises as the commons entrust their destinies to those who abolished monarchy.
Aristocracy evolves into oligarchy due to the inherited position of authority and lack of experience of misfortune.
Oligarchs become greedy and indulge in excesses, arousing feelings in the people similar to those against tyranny.
Courageous individuals who speak out against the oligarchs find popular support.
Oligarchs are either killed or banished.
Democracy is established as the people remember the injustice of previous kings and the errors of entrusting government to a select few.
Equality and freedom of speech are valued while those who experienced oligarchical dominion survive.
A new generation arises that takes freedom and equality for granted, aiming at pre-eminence.
Wealthy individuals corrupt the people with gifts, leading to the abolition of democracy and the rise of violence.
The people grow accustomed to living at the expense of others and, led by an enterprising but poor leader, institute a rule of violence.
Massacres, banishments, and plundering occur until they degenerate into savages and find a new master and monarch.
This cycle of political revolution is nature's course, where constitutions change, disappear, and return to their starting point.
Understanding this cycle allows for predicting a state's future, though timing may be difficult to estimate.
The Roman state's formation, growth, perfection, decline, and change can be understood through this method.
Lycurgus understood these changes and created a mixed constitution in Sparta to prevent any single principle from being perverted into its allied evil.
Rust for iron, wood-worms and ship-worms for timber are inbred pests.
Kingship's vice is despotism, aristocracy's is oligarchy, and democracy's is the savage rule of violence.
Combining the good features of the best governments, Lycurgus aimed to neutralize the force of each principle and maintain equilibrium.
Kingship was guarded from arrogance by the commons, who had a sufficient share in the government.
The commons were prevented from treating the kings with contempt by the elders, who supported justice.
The weakest part of the state gained power through the support of the elders.
This constitution preserved liberty at Sparta for a longer period than recorded elsewhere.
Romans reached the same result through struggles and troubles, choosing the best by the light of experience gained in disaster.
Lycurgus constructed his constitution, foreseeing events, while the Romans reached the same final result as regards their form of government through the discipline of many struggles and troubles.
Advantages of a Mixed Constitution
The three kinds of government (monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy) all shared in the control of the Roman state.
Fairness and propriety were shown in drawing up the constitution and its administration.
It was impossible to determine whether the system was aristocratic, democratic, or monarchical.
The consuls' power made the constitution seem monarchical.
The senate's power made it seem aristocratic.
The masses' power made it seem democratic.
Consuls exercised authority in Rome over all public affairs and introduce embassies to the senate.
Consuls consult the senate on urgent matters and carry out its decrees.
Consuls summon assemblies, introduce measures, and preside over the execution of popular decrees.
Consuls have almost uncontrolled power in war preparations and operations.
They can make demands on allies, appoint military tribunes, levy soldiers, and inflict punishment.
Consuls can spend any sum from public funds with the quaestor's assistance.
The constitution may be called a pure monarchy or kingship, looking at this part of the administration alone.
The senate controls the treasury, revenue, and expenditure.
Quaestors cannot disburse without a decree of the senate.
The senate controls the outlay every five years by the censors on public works.
The senate has jurisdiction over crimes committed in Italy (treason, conspiracy, poisoning, assassination).
The senate attends to the needs of private persons or communities in Italy (arbitration, damage claims, succor, protection).
The senate dispatches embassies to countries outside Italy for settling differences, offering advice, imposing demands, receiving submission, or declaring war.
The senate decides the reception and answer to embassies arriving in Rome.
Constitution appears to be entirely aristocratic during absence of Consuls.
The people alone have the right to confer honors and inflict punishment.
The people try offenses punishable by a fine and are the only court that may try on capital charges.
Those found guilty may depart openly into voluntary exile if even one tribe has not yet voted.
The people bestow office on the deserving and have the power of approving or rejecting laws.
The people deliberate on war and peace and ratify alliances, terms of peace, and treaties.
The people's share in the government is the greatest, and the constitution is a democratic one.
Each of the three parts can counteract or cooperate with the others.
Consul appears to have absolute authority but requires support of the people and senate.
Legions require constant supplies, and without the senate's consent, corn, clothing, and pay cannot be provided.
The senate can supersede or retain a general and can celebrate or belittle successes.
Triumphs cannot be held unless the senate consents and provides funds.
The consuls are obliged to account for their actions to the people.
The senate is obliged to pay attention to the commons and respect the wishes of the people.
The senate cannot carry out inquiries into grave offenses against the state, punishable with death, unless the senatus consultum is confirmed by the people.
The people alone have the power of passing or rejecting any law meant to deprive the senate of some of its traditional authority.
If a single tribune interposes, the senate cannot decide finally about any matter.
The tribunes are always obliged to act as the people decree and to pay every attention to their wishes.
The people must be submissive to the senate and respect its members both in public and in private.
Vast number of contracts given out by censors for construction and repair of public buildings.
Matters such as navigable rivers, harbors, gardens, mines, and lands are farmed.
The senate is supreme in all these matters and can grant extension of time, relieve the contractor if any accident occurs, and liberate him from his contract.
The judges in most civil trials are appointed from the senate, making all citizens at the mercy of the senate.
Everyone is reluctant to oppose the projects of the consuls as all are generally and individually under their authority when in the field.
Their union is adequate to all emergencies.
When a common danger compels them to act in concord and support each other, the strength of the state becomes great.
All compete in devising means of meeting the need of the hour, and decisions are executed promptly.
This form of constitution possesses an irresistible power of attaining every object upon which it is resolved.
When freed from external menace, they are corrupted by flattery and wax insolent.
The state provides a remedy for the evil from which it suffers.
None of the three is absolute, but the purpose of the one can be counterworked and thwarted by the others.
Any aggressive impulse is checked, and each estate stands in dread of being interfered with by the others.
Integrity in Public Affairs
Laws and customs in Rome are better than in Carthage regarding wealth acquisition.
Accepting bribes and seeking gain from improper channels is disgraceful in Rome.
Open bribery is practiced at Carthage, while death is the penalty for it in Rome.
Merit is rewarded differently in the two cases, leading to dissimilar steps taken to gain them.
The Roman commonwealth is superior due to the nature of their religious convictions.
Superstition maintains the cohesion of the Roman State.
These matters are clothed in pomp and introduced extensively into public and private life.
The ancients acted wisely in introducing notions concerning the gods and beliefs in the terrors of hell among the people.
The moderns are most rash and foolish in banishing such beliefs.
Among the Greeks, members of the government trusted with a talent cannot keep their faith, whereas among the Romans those dealing with large sums of money maintain correct conduct because they have pledged their faith by oath.
It is rare to find a man who keeps his hands off public money elsewhere, whereas among the Romans one rarely comes across a man who has been detected in such conduct.
The Decay of Political Glory
All existing things are subject to decay and change.
Every kind of state is liable to decay through external and internal agencies.
The latter is a regular process.
When a state has weathered many great perils and attains supremacy, extravagance increases, and citizens become fierce in their rivalry regarding office.
The beginning of the change for the worse is due to love of office, disgrace entailed by obscurity, extravagance, and purse-proud display.
The populace is responsible when they think they have a grievance against grasping people and are puffed up by the flattery of those who aspire to office.
Stirred to fury and swayed by passion, they will no longer obey or be equals of the ruling caste but will demand the lion's share for themselves.
The state will change its name to freedom and democracy but will change its nature to mob-rule.
Cicero
Roman political thought hasn't been expressed in systematic philosophical works, so it has been deemed nonexistent.
Political theory is only one of the sources of political thought, not necessarily the most creative one.
Political ideas may be found in law, lore, and literature.
This approach to Roman political thought is similar to studying enduring expressions of American political thought in judicial opinions.
Law and administration are Rome's great contributions to government conceptions and practices in the western world.
Roman law adapts to changing environments and exists as the predominant system in many parts of the world.
The flexibility of Roman law, its capacity to adjust to changing conditions, its ability to grow from the law of a city into that of a world empire, proves a political wisdom of the highest order.
Rome accepted the universalistic heritage