Architecture through Ages (copy) (copy) (copy)
ROME: Flavian Amphitheater / Colosseum
The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, is a monumental arena for gladiatorial games.
Period:
Flavian Dynasty
Architecture:
Made primarily of travertine with tufa and concrete.
Features a concrete foundation with travertine piers and concrete vaults.
Significance:
Vespasian, the emperor who commissioned its construction, declared his loyalty to Roman citizens by reclaiming land that was previously stolen.
Accessibility:
The structure included 76 entrances to enable easy access and efficient flow of foot traffic.
Structure:
Comprises three levels, each supported by vaults and staircases.
Seating arrangements were ranked based on social status; those of higher status were seated closer to the arena floor.
Velarium:
A mechanical awning that provided partial protection to spectators from hot and rainy weather.
Beneath the arena:
A complex system of passageways and rooms was used to hold gladiators and animals.
Architectural Features:
The first three levels showcased an arcade of repeating arches framed by engaged columns.
The fourth level lacked arches.
Ground level utilized Tuscan columns, the second level featured Ionic columns, and the third level used Corinthian columns.
All structures employed post and lintel construction, though they did not serve a structural purpose.
PANTHEON
The Pantheon is constructed from brick and concrete with marble and granite columns
Period:
Antonine dynasty.
Influences:
It adopts classical Greek architectural elements on its facade while showcasing Roman excellence in concrete engineering.
Purpose:
Originally a temple dedicated to all Roman gods; its facade resembles typical Roman temples.
Granite was imported from Egypt for construction.
Architectural Layout:
Features a drum and dome structure, with a rotunda roof topped by an oculus that serves as the sole natural light source.
The oculus allows rainwater to enter, which is managed by a Roman drain within the floor.
Symbolism:
The Pantheon emphasizes the connection between nature and divinity within a sacred space.
The height of the building is equal to its diameter, creating a perfect sphere.
Coffers in the dome serve to draw the eye upward.
It was the first temple in Rome converted into a Christian church and is referred to as “A place of all gods.”
Function:
The building served not just as a temple but as a space to engage foreign audiences.
Construction:
Mainly composed of bricks and concrete, it reflects an innovation in architectural design by Hadrian.
Facts about the bricks:
The dating of bricks indicates they belong to both the Trajanic and Hadrianic periods, with most marble remaining original along with stucco, part of an 18th-century project.
Design elements:
It is noted that the architecture prioritizes dynamic movement over stability, featuring stacked pediments.
Visuals convey possible meanings and functions, with intentional asymmetry and unaligned dimensions.
Capitals are deliberately off-center, aiming to impress and provoke physiological responses from viewers.
EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS
This statue made of bronze with gilding represents the adoptive emperors of the
Period:
Antonine dynasty.
Mobility:
The statue has been relocated multiple times and was a centerpiece in Michelangelo's architectural complex.
Presentation:
The emperor's extended hand addresses the crowd; his size dominates the horse, signifying power yet conserving the horse's strength.
Expression:
The facial expression suggests thoughtful compassion, reflecting the military challenges faced by the Roman Empire.
The raised foot of the horse, historically positioned over a defeated enemy, indicates dual interpretations:
One interpretation is a ruler compassionate toward the enemy and the working-class Roman society;
An alternative view presents him merely as a pragmatic ruler focused on the safety of the reigning class and the empire.
Symbolism:
The right hand, extending outward, symbolizes the emperor’s constant movement during a time of unrest.
The statue showcases over seven layers of gilt, depicting a calm, composed ruler with a long beard and heavy-lidded eyes.
Biographical fallacy insight:
The statue should not be read purely in context with Aurelius's philosophical meditations, but rather reflects a broader sentiment of caution towards wars and governance.
BASILICA NOVA
Constructed from brick and concrete with marble and granite columns during the Constantine period, initially built by Maxentius and completed by Constantine.
Period:
Constantine Period
Purpose:
Served as a public administrative and judicial hall.
Its design influenced the architecture of Christian churches, leading to the emergence of the basilica plan.
Structural Techniques:
Advanced use of Roman concrete vaulting for the construction.
Features a central nave supported by three massive barrel vaults, with side aisles covered by coffered barrel vaults.
Illumination:
Large clerestory windows allow ample light into the interior.
Notable Features:
Once contained a colossal statue of Constantine, representing the pinnacle of Roman imperial architecture.
COLOSAL ENTHRONED PORTRAIT OF EMPEROR CONSTANTINE
Made from marble during the Constantinian period, the statue conveys Constantine's power and authority.
Period:
Constantine Period
Dimensions:
The statue stands 40 feet tall.
Features:
Clean-shaven appearance with a long face and neat hairstyle, intended to evoke historical memories of previous rulers.
A commanding gaze directed upward suggests a disconnection from earthly cares, aligning himself with divine authority.
Original Position:
The statue was initially seated on a throne, with an outstretched right hand pointing towards the sky.
The uncarved back of the head indicates its positioning against a wall.
Naturalism:
The statue displays pronounced musculature, reflecting a balance of stylized representation and realistic features.
LATE ANTIQUITY-BYZANTIUM-MEDIEVAL
HAGIA SOPHIA
Located in Istanbul, Turkey, Hagia Sophia uses a brick and concrete core, adorned with marble columns and revetment, along with gold glass mosaics.
Period:
Byzantium Period
Significance:
Offers visible evidence of the emperor's power, linking his reign back to Constantine.
Became a central location for public rituals.
Architectural Design:
Features a central dome, apse, narthex, and a centrally planned martyrium, recognized as one of the largest vaulted structures worldwide.
Built for Justinian in response to civil unrest as part of city restoration efforts.
Adapted from a basilica plan featuring a wide nave accompanied by broad side aisles and upper galleries.
Half domes are supported by secondary piers.
Structure:
The central dome protects the apse on one end while the inner narthex is situated on the opposite end.
A synthesis of Christian public building styles: longitudinal basilica combined with a centrally planned martyrium.
Unique Features:
The term “Holy Wisdom” underscores its religious relevance.
The building transitioned functionally through history, serving as a church, mosque, museum, and again as a mosque.
Built using masonry construction techniques; the design includes pendentives that provide structural support.
The dome is visually enhanced with forty small windows, creating a floating appearance.
SAN VITALE
Located in Italy, San Vitale has a brick and concrete core embellished with marble columns and revetment, as well as gold glass mosaics.
Period:
Byzantium Period
Design:
Notable for its polygonal layout, favored by Justinian for church and mausoleum designs.
Supported by eight piers supporting the dome with ambulatory and gallery structures that wrap around.
The niche extends outward into a chancel featuring an apse.
Reflects the axial emphasis characteristic of basilica churches, optimized to fit a central plan structure.
ICON OF VIRGIN (THEOTOKOS)
Created in Mount Sinai, Egypt, this wax encaustic painting on wooden panel represents Byzantine artistry.
Period:
Byzantium Period
Features:
The Virgin Theotokos and her son are shown flanked by two warrior saints (Saints Theodore and George), enhancing the hierarchical composition.
Behind them are two angels directing attention toward the heavens, symbolizing divine connection.
The centrally placed hand of God offers a blessing, emphasizing the importance of divine intervention.
Artistic Intent:
The icon’s crowded composition discourages wandering eyes and encourages believers to discover avenues to salvation.
PURSE COVER AND BROACH
Found as grave goods in Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, England, these objects embody early medieval artistry in gold, glass, cloisonné garnets, and enamels.
Period:
Early Medieval Period
Archaeological Context:
Discovered within a burial mound of an early English ruler, the site contained a complete warship alongside a multitude of metal objects.
Byzantine plates and Gallic coins indicate connections to the Mediterranean world.
Design:
The purse cover features intricate inlaid gold, glass, enamel, and garnets, showcasing bilateral symmetry.
An interlace pattern embodies the warrior ethos of the buried leader while providing a sense of order and balance.
LINDAU GOSPELS
Originating from Saint Gall, Switzerland, the front cover of the folio, crafted with gold, precious stones, and pearls, reflects early medieval art influences.
Period:
Early Medieval Period
Characteristics:
Exhibits Carolingian metalwork aesthetics; the back features flat abstract figures and dynamic interlaced animal forms, reminiscent of insular manuscript illuminations.
May have previously served as the cover of an earlier book, showcasing intertextual continuity.
The central representation of Christ rendered in repoussé appears volumetric, hanging on the cross while showing little sign of suffering.
Symbolism:
Few blood drops falling signify humanity while juxtaposing sanctity with the desire to protect the codex’s contents.
The use of gold illustrates aspirations towards highlighting sanctity and imbuing a sense of radiant light.
GERO CRUCIFIX
Located in Cologne, Germany, this painted and gilded wood sculpture embodies early medieval art principles.
Period
Early Medieval Period
Liturgical Function:
All Christian altars were required to house a relic; without them, an altar could not be sanctified and thus lacked Eucharistic significance.
Purpose of Reliquaries:
Relics, believed to have transformative qualities, were housed in specially crafted reliquaries to enhance their sacredness.
Artistic Interpretation:
The crucifix depicts Christ in naturalistic form on a human scale, emphasizing his humanity over divine characteristics.
Earlier representations depict Christ alert and painless, whereas this later version illustrates profound suffering through his sagging body, the crown of thorns, and blood drops.
Represents emotional intensity captured in the contemporary Byzantine imagery depicting Christ's agony and death.
ISLAMIC ART
GERO CRUCIFIX
Located in Cologne, Germany, this painted and gilded wood sculpture embodies early medieval art principles.
Period
Early Medieval Period
Liturgical Function:
All Christian altars were required to house a relic; without them, an altar could not be sanctified and thus lacked Eucharistic significance.
Purpose of Reliquaries:
Relics, believed to have transformative qualities, were housed in specially crafted reliquaries to enhance their sacredness.
Artistic Interpretation:
The crucifix depicts Christ in naturalistic form on a human scale, emphasizing his humanity over divine characteristics.
Earlier representations depict Christ alert and painless, whereas this later version illustrates profound suffering through his sagging body, the crown of thorns, and blood drops.
Represents emotional intensity captured in the contemporary Byzantine imagery depicting Christ's agony and death.BLUE QUR’AN
Period:
Abbasid Period (although not sure when exactly is what created)
Origin:
Created in Tunisia, the remaining folios feature indigo-dyed parchment, embellished with gold and silver text.
Exact origins and dating remain unclear; only 100 of the original 600 pages survive.
Would have been bound into multiple volumes.
Characteristics:
Indigo-dyed parchment pages display entire text written in gold, enhancing visual impact; gold color contrasts vividly against the blue background.
Consistency in the line widths across pages adds to the aesthetic quality, alongside the occasional silver circle indicating new chapters.
The complete lack of diacritical marks suggests the manuscript's early stage in development and highlights its readability challenges.
GREAT MOSQUE OF CORDOBA
Located in Spain, the mosque was constructed over a demolished church that replaced a Roman temple.
Period:
Abbasid Period
Architectural Layout:
A hypostyle plan allows for a hall formed with numerous columns, including an enclosed north courtyard featuring a fountain and orange grove for purification rituals.
Design Elements:
The unusual position of the Qibla wall on the south side aligns similarly to that of the Great Mosque of Damascus.
Corinthian columns incorporate spolia, where older materials were repurposed to create a sense of historical continuity.
The use of short marble columns stacked in two-tiered arcades creates a visual resemblance to Roman aqueduct structures.
Alternating red and white bricks featured in horseshoe arches emulate the innovations seen in earlier structures.
Historical Context:
The mosque has undergone multiple expansions to accommodate the growing Muslim community, signifying the Umayyad Caliphate's influence.
Additional architectural features include the addition of a maqsura space (for royal use), a new mihrab, and ornate mosaics that reinforce the traditions associated with early Umayyad rulers.
GREAT MOSQUE AT DJENNE
Located in Tunisia, this mosque has been relocated and rebuilt several times over the centuries.
The current iteration was rebuilt in 1907 after falling into ruin during French colonialism.
Period:
Abbasid Period
Architectural Features:
Built with irregular sun-dried bricks, the outer surfaces are coated with mud-based plaster, reflecting local building traditions.
Contains a large open courtyard adjacent to the covered prayer hall, allowing for community gatherings.
Features square minarets on the Qibla wall topped with rounded cones and ostrich egg motifs.
Structural Design:
The interior features long rows of arches that provide structural support for the roofing system.
Adobe walls necessitate regular maintenance, and the visible scaffolding integrated into the design serves functional purposes while reflecting local beliefs by the Mande.
These elements are believed to transmit supernatural forces to pre-Islamic shrines.
MUHAMMAD IBN AL-ZAYN BASIN (“BAPTISTÈRE DE SAINT-LOUIS”)
Made from brass with gold, silver, and niello inlays, this exquisite basin exemplifies Mamluk metalwork craftsmanship.
Period:
Mamluk Period
Historical Significance:
The basin arrived in France as craftspeople fled from Central Asia due to Mongol invasions, preserving artistic traditions.
The basin functioned as a luxury item for ritual handwashing.
Design Features:
The outer surface features four roundels depicting mounted Mamluk nobles, while the inner rim displays hunting scenes and geometric designs of sea creatures.
Personal Touch:
Crafted by Muhammad ibn al-Zayn, who signed the basin multiple times, showcasing pride in his craftsmanship.
Artistic Context:
The basin symbolizes the blending of luxury and artistry within Islamic culture, highlighting the significance of craftsmanship during this period.
ROMANESQUE-GOTHIC ART
BAYEUX TAPESTRY
Created in Bayeux, France, this remarkable work is embroidered with dyed wool on linen, often inaccurately labeled as a tapestry.
Period:
Romanesque Period
Story Representation:
The tapestry narratively depicts the story of the Norman conquest rather than serving as a religious narrative.
Commissioned by Bishop Odo, William's half-brother, it stretches a length of 229 feet, recalling the grandeur of Trajan's Column.
Format:
Distinct for its expansive embroidered format, it functions similarly to a scroll, displaying a sequential narrative with labeled figures in the center register.
Illustrates events such as warships traversing the English Channel and the Battle of Hastings.
BASILICA OF SAINT-SERNIN
Located in Toulouse, France, this Romanesque church is built from brick and limestone.
Period:
Romanesque Period
Pilgrimage Route:
Modeled after St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the five-aisled basilica forms a Latin cross layout, intersected by a transept.
Interior Design:
An ambulatory encircles the apse, allowing uninterrupted movement during services.
The apse features smaller chapels (apsidioles) containing relics and altar tables.
Structural Features:
The barrel-vaulted masonry structure covers the central aisle, while side aisles are supported by groin vaults.
Numerous tall windows enhance the dramatic height of the interior, leading to a high nave with transverse ribs extending across.
Architectural Innovation:
Facades integrate elements of architecture not seen in Europe for over 500 years.
MORGAN MADONNA
This wooden and polychrome figure from Auvergne, France, likely served as a liturgical object on a church altar.
Period:
Romanesque Period
Functionality:
Originally carried in religious processions and was displayed on altars, representing divine authority intertwined with maternal symbolism.
Artistic Details:
Displays naturalistic color on the face, with red and blue robes showcasing rhythmic folds, evoking maternal care while cradling Christ.
Two back cavities suggest it may function as a reliquary with detachable heads for special occasions.
CHARTRES CATHEDRAL
Located in Chartres, France, this cathedral features limestone, marble, and stained glass, merging Gothic and Romanesque elements.
Period:
Gothic Period
Importance:
Held the venerated relic of the Virgin's tunic, making it a significant pilgrimage site.
Carving on its portals embodies biblical iconography within a unified program centered around the tympanum.
Iconography and Design:
Carved figures adorn the facade with energies contrasting serene Christ versus dynamic figures at Vezelay.
The three royal portals present old testament kings and queens on door jambs, interlinking historical narrative with physical structure.
Architectural Innovation:
The nave features a lengthy and wide transept, designed based on the belief in mathematically pure proportions.
Elements like the labyrinth encased within the nave created a physical representation of pilgrimage paths to Jerusalem.
Reconstruction:
After suffering damage from fire, the cathedral was rebuilt with enhanced features like double-aisled ambulatories and compound piers allowing soaring vaults.
The external buttresses support the height, allowing for larger stained glass windows illuminating the interior per Suger’s vision for sacred architecture.
RENAISSANCE EUROPE (ITALY) - NORTH AMERICA
PISANO, PULPIT OF THE BAPTISTERY, PISA
Located in Pisa, Italy, this marble pulpit is characterized by traces of polychromy and Gothic elements.
Period:
Italian Gothic Period
Historical Context:
Commissioned by Archbishop to Nicola Pisano for the city’s baptistery, significant for its religious and civic implications.
Structure:
Elevated on seven polychromatic granite columns, likely repurposed from ancient ruins, showcasing Corinthian-inspired capital designs.
Features trefoil arches and five marble panels with high relief scenes of Jesus's life.
Hierarchical scale is emphasized; Mary appears larger than other figures, reinforcing her narrative importance.
Displays a revival of classical Roman sculpture influences in its storytelling techniques.