Domestic Laws and French History Lecture Notes

Principles of Absolutism and Divine Right

Absolutism is a political system in which a monarch holds absolute power over every individual and institution within a kingdom. Central to this system is the doctrine of Divine Right, which posits that kings are chosen by God to rule. Because their authority is perceived as coming directly from a divine source, the monarch's word is law, and they are not held accountable to any earthly authority. This belief facilitates an easy transition of power from one king to the next, as the throne is seen as a divinely ordained position.

A monarch exercising absolute power possesses several core administrative and executive functions. They have the sole authority to make laws and the power to levy taxes to fund the state's operations or military ventures. Furthermore, the monarch administrates justice, which includes the power to determine punishments for crimes. They maintain total control over all government officials and are the primary architects of foreign policy, deciding when to engage in diplomacy or declare war.

Profiles in European Absolutism

Louis XIV, who reigned from $1643$ to $1715$, is considered the preeminent example of an absolutist monarch in Europe. Known as the "Sun King," he served as both a religious and political leader, famously encapsulating his philosophy with the statement, "I am the state!" During his long reign, he worked extensively to centralize power by keeping the nobility out of the government and increasing the size of the army to wage various wars. While he expanded French influence, his policies included the persecution of Protestants and left the country with a massive financial burden following his death.

Peter the Great of Russia also utilized absolutist rule to drastically transform his nation. He is credited with modernizing Russia and elevating it to the status of an important European power. One of his most significant legacies was the establishment of St. Petersburg, a city designed to serve as a "window to the West" and a symbol of Russia's new European orientation.

The Enlightenment and Political Philosophy

The Enlightenment, spanning the $17^{th}$ and $18^{th}$ centuries, was an intellectual movement that stressed reason, logic, criticism, and freedom of thought over blind faith and superstition. Philosophers of this era supported ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government, and the separation of church and state. These ideas directly challenged the foundations of absolutism and Divine Right.

Thomas Hobbes ($1588-1679$) was an early political philosopher whose work, Leviathan, introduced Social Contract theory. Despite the Enlightenment's later pivot toward democracy, Hobbes believed in the necessity of a strong government and supported absolute monarchies as a means to maintain order. In contrast, John Locke ($1652-1704$), in his Two Treatises of Government, argued that all individuals are entitled to life, liberty, and property. Locke is credited with starting the concepts of checks and balances and the rule of law, suggesting that even the government must be bound by legal constraints.

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu ($1689-1755$), further developed these ideas in his work, The Spirit of the Laws. He is best known for introducing the concept of the separation of powers within a government to prevent any single entity from becoming too powerful. Jean-Jacques Rousseau ($1712-1778$), author of The Social Contract, argued that democracy was the best form of government to ensure both the general welfare of the people and individual freedom under the rule of law.

The Social Structure of the Three Estates

Before the French Revolution, society was divided into a rigid hierarchy known as the Three Estates. The First Estate consisted of the Clergy, who made up approximately $1\%$ of the population. The Second Estate was composed of the Nobles, representing about $2\%$ of the population. These two groups held the vast majority of power and wealth.

The Third Estate comprised the remaining $97\%$ of the population and was divided into three distinct subgroups. At the top were the Bourgeoisie, who were wealthy merchants and workers. Next were the poorly paid city workers, including servants and cooks. The largest group within the Third Estate was the peasants, who made up $80\%$ of the total population and worked as farmers. Members of the Third Estate had very few rights and bore the brunt of the national financial burden, often paying half of their total income in taxes.

The Evolution of the French Government ($1789-1815$)

Until $1789$, France was a monarchy ruled by Louis XVI, characterized by absolutism and mounting national debt. To address the financial crisis, Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General. This led to the Third Estate forming the National Assembly to write a new constitution. The tension culminated in the storming of the Bastille, marking the start of the French Revolution ($1789-1792$). During this phase, many privileges were stripped from the First and Second Estates.

From $1792$ to $1799$, the government shifted to the National Convention and later the Directory. This period took a radical turn with the execution of Louis XVI. The Reign of Terror, led by Maximilien Robespierre, saw the execution of anyone perceived as an opponent of the revolution. Power was held by the Committee of Public Safety in a system described as "democratic despotism," where elected leaders acted as dictators.

Napoleon Bonaparte seized control in $1799$, establishing the Consulate ($1799-1804$). During this time, he created the Napoleonic Code and made peace with the Pope. In $1804$, he crowned himself Emperor, beginning the Napoleonic Empire ($1804-1815$). He waged war across Europe, seeing early victories before suffering a major defeat in Russia and a final loss at Waterloo against other European powers.

Following Napoleon's fall in $1815$, France returned to a Constitutional Monarchy with the restoration of Louis XVIII to the throne. The Congress of Vienna reestablished the balance of power across Europe to prevent future dominance by a single nation. Despite the return of the monarchy, the Napoleonic Civil Code remained a lasting influence on government and legal systems.

Absolutism is when one king or queen has all the power over a country. This king or queen believes that God chose them to rule, so they think nobody can tell them what to do. Because they are in charge of everything, they make the laws, collect taxes, and decide what happens to people who break the laws. An example of a king like this is Louis XIV from France. He made a lot of rules and fought wars to keep control. Another example is Peter the Great in Russia, who helped modernize his country and built a new city to show how powerful it was.

The Enlightenment was a time when people started to think differently and questioned kings who had all the power. They wanted more freedom and fairness. Some smart people, like John Locke, said that everyone has the right to life, freedom, and property, and the government should follow the law too. Montesquieu said that power should be shared between different parts of the government, so one person doesn't have all the power. Rousseau believed that democracy is better because it lets people have a say in how they are governed.

Before the French Revolution, society was divided into three groups called Estates. The First Estate was the Clergy (church leaders), the Second Estate was the Nobles (rich people), and the Third Estate was everyone else, including farmers and workers. The Third Estate had many problems and paid most of the taxes even though they were the biggest group.

The French Revolution started when the Third Estate wanted to change things because they were tired of being treated unfairly. They formed their own group, the National Assembly, and began changing the laws. After a lot of fighting, they ended up executing the king, which was a big deal. Many changes happened, including getting rid of the old way of running the country, and later, Napoleon took over and made himself emperor, but after he lost a war, France went back to being a monarchy with a new king.