Psychopathology

Neurotransmitters and Their Disorders

  • Serotonin (5-HT)

    • Linked to: Depression, Anxiety, OCD, Eating Disorders
    • Key Effects: Mood regulation, sleep, appetite, impulse control

  • Dopamine (DA)

    • Linked to: Schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease, ADHD, Substance use disorders
    • Key Effects: Reward, motivation, motor control, attention

  • Norepinephrine (NE)

    • Linked to: Depression, PTSD, Anxiety disorders
    • Key Effects: Alertness, arousal, stress response

  • Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)

    • Linked to: Anxiety disorders, Seizure disorders
    • Key Effects: Main inhibitory neurotransmitter; calming effect

  • Glutamate

    • Linked to: Schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, Neurotoxicity (stroke)
    • Key Effects: Main excitatory neurotransmitter; learning, memory

  • Acetylcholine (ACh)

    • Linked to: Alzheimer’s disease, Cognitive impairments
    • Key Effects: Memory, attention, learning

  • Endorphins

    • Linked to: Depression, Pain disorders, Addiction
    • Key Effects: Pain relief, pleasure, reward pathways

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

  • Definition: Impairment in social interactions, communication, and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior.

  • Common Symptoms:

    • Problems with social-emotional reciprocity and nonverbal communication.
    • Limited eye contact and difficulty understanding social cues.
    • Restricted, repetitive behaviors or interests and insistence on sameness (e.g., routines).
    • Abnormal sensory responses (e.g., hypo- or hyper-reactivity).

  • Common Treatments:

    • Psychosocial therapies, behavioral techniques, structured educational services.
    • Operant conditioning strategies; comprehensive behavioral therapy.

Intellectual Development Disorder

  • Definition: Neurodevelopmental disorder with limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior before age 18.

  • Severity Levels:

    • Mild, moderate, severe, or profound.

  • Diagnosis: Requires external evaluation to ensure issues are due to the child, not the environment.

  • Treatment Options:

    • Drug Therapy, Behavioral Strategies, Social Programs.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

  • Cause: Result of alcohol abuse during pregnancy.

  • Associated Disorders:

    • ADHD, Intellectual Development Disorder, Learning Disorders, Conduct Disorder, Mood Disorders, Autism Spectrum-like traits.

Tourette's Disorder

  • Definition: Neurodevelopmental disorder with multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic for over 1 year.

  • Symptoms:

    • Motor tics (e.g., blinking, facial grimacing) and vocal tics (e.g., throat clearing).
    • Typical onset in childhood, increasing in adolescence, and declining in adulthood.

Alzheimer’s Disease

  • Characteristics: Progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting memory, thinking, and behavior.

  • Symptoms:

    • Memory loss, confusion about time/place, problem-solving difficulties, poor judgment, mood/personality changes.

  • Neurological Deficits: Involves neurotransmitter deficiencies (ACh, NE, serotonin, somatostatin).

  • Causes: Genetic predisposition and neuron connection loss.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) vs. Conduct Disorder

  • ODD:

    • Persistent pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative behavior.
    • Symptoms can arise from early trauma or bad environment, leading to family/school problems.

  • Conduct Disorder:

    • Characterized by behavior violating rights of others, aggression, property destruction, deceitfulness, and severe rules violations.

  • Treatment for both: Effective interventions often include therapy focusing on behavioral modification.

Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa

  • Symptoms in Women:
    • Extreme weight loss or failure to gain expected weight.
    • Intense fear of weight gain despite being underweight.
    • Distorted body image (overweight perception when dangerously thin).
    • Amenorrhea; obsessive behaviors related to food.
    • Excessive exercise to control weight.

Drug Categories and Effects

  • Depressants: Slow functions (e.g., Alcohol, Xanax).
  • Stimulants: Speed up activity (e.g., Cocaine, Methamphetamine).
  • Opioids: Pain relief and euphoria (e.g., Heroin, Morphine).
  • Hallucinogens: Alter perceptions (e.g., LSD, Psilocybin).
  • Cannabis: Mixed effects (e.g., Marijuana).
  • Inhalants: Mind-altering effects (e.g., Glue, Paint Thinners).

Withdrawal & Intoxication Symptoms

Alcohol Withdrawal:

  1. Mild (6-12 hrs.): Anxiety, headache, nausea, tremors.
  2. Moderate (12-48 hrs.): Seizures, confusion, increased heartbeat.
  3. Severe (48-72 hrs.): Delirium Tremens; hallucinations, severe disturbances.

Opioid Intoxication:

  • Symptoms include dysphoria, nausea, muscle aches, dilated pupils, sweating, diarrhea, and fever.

Therapy for Addiction

  • Approaches: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and Motivational Interviewing to increase self-awareness and encourage help-seeking behavior.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

  • Symptoms: Loud snoring, intermittent silence with pauses in breathing, gasping for air.
  • Risk Factors: Obesity, older age, male sex, family history, smoking or alcohol use.

Diabetes and Its Consequences

  • Health Risks:
    • Cardiovascular Disease, Kidney Damage (Diabetic Nephropathy), Nerve Damage (Diabetic Neuropathy), Eye Damage (Diabetic Retinopathy), foot problems.

Legal Terms in Psychology

  • Right to Treatment: Individuals are entitled to receive active treatment, not just shelter.
  • Competence to Stand Trial: Ability to understand the legal proceedings and participate in defense.
  • Incompetent to Stand Trial: Lacking understanding and unable to participate in legal defense.
  • Insanity Defense: Legal notion that people are not responsible for crimes committed while mentally incapacitated.