ap psyc
AP Psychology Quiz — Study Notes
Module 1.1 — Interaction of Heredity & Environment
1. Nature vs. Nurture
Nature-nurture issue: how our genes (nature) and experiences/environment (nurture) influence behavior and traits.
Modern psychology's basic answer = both interact.
Heredity: genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.
Environment: every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to people and experiences around us.
Genes can predispose us toward traits, but environment can affect how those traits develop.
2. Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary psychology: studies how natural selection helps explain psychological traits and behavior.
Natural selection:
Organisms produce offspring that compete for survival.
Biological/genetic variations occur.
Some variations improve survival or reproductive success.
Individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to reproduce.
Their genes are more likely to pass to future generations.
Over generations, population characteristics change.
Mutation: random error in gene replication that can create genetic variation.
🧠 Remember: evolutionary psychologists tend to focus on human similarities produced through natural selection.
3. Behavior Genetics
Behavior genetics: study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
Important biology:
DNA → genes → traits/proteins
Chromosomes contain DNA.
Genes are segments of DNA.
Genome = complete instructions for making an organism.
Many psychological traits are polygenic = influenced by many genes rather than one single gene.
🧠 Think: Evolutionary psychology = why humans are similar. Behavior genetics = why individuals differ.
4. Twin Studies
Used to separate effects of heredity and environment.
Identical/monozygotic twins
Develop from one fertilized egg that splits
Genetically extremely similar
Fraternal/dizygotic twins
Develop from two different fertilized eggs
Genetically no more similar than ordinary siblings
If identical twins are more alike on a trait than fraternal twins → evidence of genetic influence.
Researchers also study identical twins raised apart. If they remain similar despite different environments, that provides further evidence for genetic influence.
⚠ But similarities don't prove everything is genetic; researchers have to consider shared experiences and environments too.
5. Adoption Studies
Researchers compare adoptees with:
Biological relatives → shared genes
versus
Adoptive relatives → shared environment
The text emphasizes:
Adoptees' personalities tend to resemble their biological parents more than their adoptive parents.
Shared family environment has surprisingly little influence on personality.
Parenting still matters for things such as attitudes, values, manners, politics, and religious beliefs.
So don't interpret this as "parents don't matter."
6. Gene-Environment Interaction
Interaction: the effect of one factor depends on another factor.
Genes and environment don't operate independently.
Your genetic traits can influence:
what environments you seek
how people respond to you
And environments can influence how genes operate.
7. Epigenetics ⭐
Epigenetics: study of molecular mechanisms through which environments can trigger or block genetic expression.
Think:
Genes = possibilities/instructions
Epigenetic mechanisms = switches controlling whether certain genes are expressed
Environmental influences mentioned include:
diet
drugs/toxins
stress
neglect/abuse
social contact
exercise
Important: epigenetics changes gene expression, not the underlying DNA sequence itself.
Module 1.1 in one sentence
Behavior results from the interaction of genetic predispositions and environmental influences.
Module 3.3a — Gender Development
1. Sex vs. Gender ⭐
Don't mix these up.
Sex: biologically influenced characteristics by which people are defined as male, female, or intersex.
Gender: attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a culture associates with a person's biological sex.
The text emphasizes that sex is biological, while our understanding of gender comes from biology AND experience/culture.
2. Gender Similarities & Differences
Humans are much more alike than different overall.
The module discusses average group differences including:
Aggression
Aggression: behavior intended to hurt someone physically or emotionally.
On average, men show more physical aggression.
Relational aggression: intentionally harming someone's relationships or social standing.
The sex difference is smaller for relational aggression.
Social power
In many societies, men historically have held more positions of social power.
Social connectedness
The text describes women as tending, on average, to be more socially connected/interdependent.
⚠ These are group averages, not rules for every individual.
3. Prenatal Sexual Development
Typically:
Mother contributes an X chromosome.
Father contributes either X or Y.
The Y chromosome includes a gene that can trigger development associated with male sex characteristics.
Testosterone
Testosterone: principal male sex hormone, although females also have it in smaller amounts.
Prenatal hormones influence sexual development.
4. Puberty
Puberty: period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
A surge in hormones produces:
Primary sex characteristics
Body structures directly involved in reproduction.
Secondary sex characteristics
Nonreproductive traits that develop during puberty.
Menarche
A girl's first menstrual period.
Spermarche
A boy's first ejaculation.
The puberty diagram on page 7 shows the pituitary gland stimulating the testes/ovaries, which release hormones associated with these changes.
5. Gender Roles
Gender role: set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males and females.
Key point:
Gender roles vary across cultures AND change over time.
That variation demonstrates a strong cultural/environmental influence.
6. Gender Identity
Gender identity: personal sense of being male, female, some combination, or neither.
Do NOT confuse with sexual orientation.
Transgender: gender identity differs from sex assigned at birth.
Gender typing: acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
7. Social Learning Theory ⭐
Social learning theory: we learn gender-related behavior through:
observation
imitation
rewards
punishment
Example:
Child sees behavior → imitates it → gets rewarded → behavior becomes more likely.
The module notes this explains some gender development but doesn't explain everything.
Gender schemas
Children form mental concepts about gender and may organize their world into categories such as "boy" and "girl."
Module 3.3b — Biology & Psychology of Sex
This section has a lot of terminology, but your main idea is biopsychosocial interaction.
1. Hormones and Sexual Motivation
Major sex hormones:
Testosterone: principal male sex hormone.
Estrogens: sex hormones present in greater amounts in females.
Hormones affect sexual development and behavior at several points:
prenatally → sexual development
puberty → hormone surge + maturation
adulthood → hormones help facilitate sexual behavior
The textbook stresses that hormones are important, but behavior isn't controlled by hormones alone.
2. Biopsychosocial Approach ⭐⭐⭐
Human sexuality is influenced by THREE categories.
Biological
sexual maturity
sex hormones, especially testosterone
Psychological
exposure to stimulating conditions
sexual fantasies
Social-cultural
family and societal values
religious/personal values
cultural expectations
media
🧠 If an AP question asks why a behavior cannot be explained by hormones alone → biopsychosocial approach.
The figure on page 2 specifically shows all three feeding into sexual motivation.
3. External Stimuli
Psychological/external stimuli can contribute to sexual arousal.
The text discusses how repeated exposure to sexually explicit media may affect expectations and attitudes.
The important AP-level idea:
Biology creates capacity, while psychological and environmental stimuli also influence behavior.
4. Teen Sexual Risk Taking
The module identifies several factors associated with risky behavior.
Communication
Teens who communicate with parents/partners may be more likely to use contraception.
Impulsivity
Can lead to decisions without considering consequences.
Alcohol use
Can reduce inhibition and impair judgment.
Mass media
Provides social scripts.
Social script: culturally modeled guide for how to act in particular situations.
Factors associated with sexual restraint
The textbook lists:
higher intelligence
religious engagement
father presence
service-learning participation
Remember these as correlations/predictors, not guarantees that one directly causes the other.
5. Nature + Nurture
The module returns to the same theme as 1.1:
Our behavior reflects:
genes + hormones + culture + learning + personal choices
Neither nature nor nurture operates alone.
Module 3.3c — Sexual Orientation
1. Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation: direction of a person's sexual and emotional attractions and the behavior/social affiliation that may result.
Terms in the module:
Heterosexual: attraction to other sex
Gay/lesbian: attraction to same sex
Bisexual: attraction to both sexes
Asexual: little or no sexual attraction
Sexual orientation is distinct from gender identity.
2. Major Finding
The textbook emphasizes:
Sexual orientation is not simply a voluntary choice.
Researchers have looked at environmental explanations, but the module says research has not found evidence that particular parenting styles or early childhood experiences determine sexual orientation.
It instead discusses biological influences.
3. Biological Research
The module considers several lines of evidence:
Same-sex behavior in other species
Observed in many animal species → suggests it is part of the natural world.
Brain differences
Researchers have reported average differences in some brain structures/responses between groups.
⚠ Important AP research issue:
Correlation ≠ causation.
Finding a brain difference doesn't prove whether that difference caused orientation or resulted from other factors.
4. Genetic Influences
Evidence suggests genetic influence because:
identical twins show greater similarity in sexual orientation than fraternal twins
sexual orientation sometimes runs in families
BUT:
❌ There is not one single "gay gene."
The textbook describes genetic influence as involving many genes with small effects.
5. Prenatal Influences
Research also points toward prenatal biological factors.
Prenatal hormones
Hormonal conditions before birth may influence later development.
Older-brother effect ⭐
For men, the probability of same-sex attraction increases somewhat with the number of older biological brothers from the same mother.
Proposed explanation in the text involves a maternal immune-system response.
The graph on page 4 shows this relationship and distinguishes right-handed from non-right-handed participants.
Big picture
The module's review summarizes the biological evidence as:
brain + genetic + prenatal influences
The research does NOT support one simple cause.
Module 5.2a — Positive Psychology
This one is VERY vocabulary-heavy, so I'd know these terms cold.
1. Positive Psychology ⭐
Positive psychology: scientific study of human flourishing, with goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive.
Associated strongly with Martin Seligman.
Focus isn't merely fixing psychological problems.
It studies things like:
happiness
well-being
strengths
resilience
positive emotions
healthy institutions
Subjective well-being: self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life.
2. Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon ⭐⭐⭐
Feel-good, do-good phenomenon:
People who are in a good mood become more likely to help others.
Easy example:
You get great news → you're happy → you're more willing to help someone.
It can also work the other direction: doing good can improve mood.
3. Emotional Ups and Downs
Emotions often don't last as long as people expect.
People tend to overestimate the duration of emotional reactions.
After good or bad events, mood often eventually moves back toward its typical level.
This demonstrates resilience.
🧠 AP example:
Someone thinks, "If I fail this test I'll be miserable forever."
Psychological research suggests they are likely overestimating how long the emotion will last.
4. Money and Happiness
Money CAN matter, especially when it helps people obtain necessities and security.
But once basic comfort is reached, increasing wealth doesn't automatically create an equivalent increase in happiness.
The graph on page 3 is important:
Average personal income rose dramatically over decades, while the percentage of Americans describing themselves as very happy stayed relatively stable.
So:
Money ≠ unlimited happiness.
The module also discusses income inequality, noting that greater inequality is associated with poorer social outcomes and reduced well-being.
5. Adaptation-Level Phenomenon ⭐⭐⭐
Adaptation-level phenomenon: tendency to judge stimuli relative to our neutral level, which is based on prior experience.
Basically:
We adapt.
Example:
You get something you've wanted forever.
At first: 😱🔥
Months later: 😐 normal.
Your expectations adjust upward and the new situation becomes your normal baseline.
This helps explain why increases in wealth or success don't necessarily produce permanent increases in happiness.
6. Relative Deprivation ⭐⭐⭐
Relative deprivation: perception that we are worse off relative to the people with whom we compare ourselves.
Happiness therefore depends partly on comparison.
Example:
You get a C.
Everyone else gets an F → you may feel pretty good.
Everyone else gets an A → you may feel bad.
Same C. Different comparison group.
🧠 Difference:
Adaptation-level = compare NOW to your OWN previous experience.
Relative deprivation = compare YOURSELF to OTHER PEOPLE.
That distinction is absolutely worth memorizing.
7. What Predicts Happiness?
The textbook table says happier people tend to:
have high self-esteem in individualistic cultures
be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable
have close, supportive relationships
have work/leisure that uses their skills
have an active religious faith (especially in more religious cultures)
sleep well and exercise
Happiness is not strongly related to:
age
gender
physical attractiveness
Genes matter too, but personal history and culture also matter.
8. Broaden-and-Build Theory ⭐⭐
Broaden-and-build theory: positive emotions broaden our awareness and over time help us build skills and resources that improve well-being.
Positive emotions can:
broaden attention
encourage creativity/exploration
build relationships
build coping skills
increase resilience
Think:
Positive emotion → broader thinking → resources/skills → future well-being.
9. Character Strengths & Virtues
Positive psychology's VIA classification identifies 24 character strengths grouped into six broad virtues.
Wisdom
creativity
curiosity
judgment
love of learning
perspective
Courage
bravery
honesty
perseverance
zest
Humanity
kindness
love
social intelligence
Justice
fairness
leadership
teamwork
Temperance
forgiveness
humility
prudence
self-regulation
Transcendence
appreciation of beauty/excellence
gratitude
hope
humor
spirituality