Medieval Europe
Chapters
Chapter 8, Lesson 4: The Age of CharlemagneChapter 8, Lesson 5: The Byzantine EmpireChapter 10, Lesson 1: FeudalismChapter 10, Lesson 2: Peasants, Trade, and CitiesChapter 10, Lesson 3: The Growth of European KingdomsChapter 12, Lesson 1: Medieval ChristianityChapter 12, Lesson 2: The CrusadesChapter 12, Lesson 3: Culture of the Middle AgesChapter 12, Lesson 4: The Late Middle Ages
Eastern Medieval Europe
The Age of Charlemagne
The New Germanic Kingdoms
→ Germanic peoples began to move into the lands of the Roman Empire, replacing it with a number of states ruled by German kings
Visigoths: invaded and occupied Spain + Italy, kept Roman structure
Ostrogoths: replaced Visigoths, also kept Roman government structure
Angles & Saxons: took over Britain from the Romans, became Anglo-Saxons
→ eventually excluded the Romans from holding power
The Kingdom of Franks
established by Clovis, the first Germanic ruler to convert to Catholic Christianity
won him the support of the Roman Catholic Church
covered modern-day France & western Germany, very powerful
the Frankish kingdom divided into three major areas following Clovis’ death
Germanic Society
Intermingling: Germans + Romans intermarried + began to create a new society
family was crucial!!!, especially extended family
Family Structure: patriarchal society, women obedient, family provides protection
males were dominant + made important decisions, women obeyed her father until she married, extended family worked together and passed it down to future generations
Crime & Punishment: not like Roman laws, very personal, blood feuds, acts of revenge
Wergild and Ordeal: new legal system to avoid bloodshed
Wergild: the amount paid by a wrongdoer to the family of the person he or she injured/killed; the value of a person in money, varying according to social status
Ordeal: one of the means of determining guilt, based on the idea of divine intervention. All involved physical trial, but divine forces would not allow an innocent person to be harmed
The Carolingian Empire
Pepin, assumed kingship for himself and his family, and his son became the new Frankish king (Charles the Great/ Charlemagne)
Charlemagne: very determined + decisive, highly intelligent + curious, fierce warrior + devout Christian
greatly expanded the Frankish kingdom + created the Carolingian Empire
Expansion: covered much of western and central Europe, expanded kingdom into Empire
Administration: depended on Charlemagne’s staff and on counts (nobles) who acted as the king’s local representatives
empire stretched from the North Sea to Italy + from France to Vienna, focused on Europe
Missi Dominici: two men sent out to local districts to ensure that the counts carried out the king’s wises
Carolingian Renaissance
strong desire to promote learning in his kingdom
intellectual & cultural revival
monasteries played a central role in the Renaissance of this era
monks copied the Bible and the works of classical Latin authors → preservation of Greek + Roman manuscripts
Charlemagne as Roman Emperor
eventually acquired title of “emperor of Romans”, even though Empire collapsed 300 years ago
showed the strength of the idea of the enduring Roman Empire
crowning by the pope symbolized the joining of Roman, Christian, and Germanic elements
Christianity became triumphant in Europe, settling in new kingdoms in Europe which all adopted the faith of Christianity
served as a unifying political factor
blended the cultures of the Germanic peoples and ancient Rome into the culture of medieval Europe
The Byzantine Empire
Eastern Roman Empire and Justinian
Justinian: emperor of Eastern Roman Empire
reestablished Roman empire in Mediterranean, but conquests did not last
contributed the codification of the Roman law (the Body of Civil Law)
became the foundation for revival and study of Roman Law, basis of Imperial Law
Body of Civil Law became foundation for revival and study of Roman law in medieval universities + some modern parts of the world
Transition From Roman to Byzantine Empire
→ faced many problems: too much territory to protect, an empty treasury, decline in population following a plague, renewed threats
Biggest challenge: the rise of Islam + unified Arab tribes = powerful force
caused the Roman Empire to lose the provinces of Syria + Palestine
caused the establishment of the Bulgarian kingdom, as problems also arose in the North
Eastern Roman Empire became a much smaller state, producing important internal changes
→ led to the Byzantine Empire
Culture: both a Greek and Christian state
Latin fell into disuse and Greek became the common + official language
built on the Christian faith that was shared by almost all its citizens
construction of churches, church ceremonies, and church decoration, influenced culture & artistic expression
trading center between east/west
Emperor: was portrayed as chosen by God, occupying a crucial position
power considered absolute, controlled both church and state
appointed a patriarch
Spiritual values of Christianity held the Byzantine state together socially + politically
Constantinople: reestablished by Justinian, became the largest city in medieval Europe
center of the empire + special Christian city
Hippodrome: amphitheater known for chariot races + an important part of Byzantine culture
eventually fell due to Seljuk Turks
Justinian built many new buildings including roads, bridges, walls, public paths, law courts, schools, churches, and reservoirs
New Problems
The Macedonian Emperors
expanded the empire to include Bulgaria the island sof Crete and Cyprus, and Syria → became the largest it had been
fostered a burst of economic prosperity, sold silks and metalworks
allowed Constantinople to flourish
restored much of the power of the Byzantine Emperor
lineage ended due to power struggles
Schisms
→ Growing split between the Catholic Church of the West & the Byzantine Empire’s own Eastern Orthodox Church
conflict began when it was ruled that usage of icons as idolatry was outlawed
Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael Cerularius took away each other’s right of church membership, began a schism (separation) between the two great branches of Christianity
Eastern Orthodoxy developed distinctive characteristics under the Byzantine Empire
did not recognize Roman Catholic Church’s pope as the only pope
the Patriarch did not hold the same authority as the Pope in Rome did for Catholics
devotion to its iconography, developed a distinctive artistic and architectural character from the West
represents the second largest Christian denomination after Roman Catholicism today
Downfall of Byzantine Empire: Seljuk Turks + Byzantine involvement in the Crusades
Western Medieval Europe
Feudalism
The End of the Carolingian Empire
→ fell apart after Charlemagne’s death, eventually divided into three major sections: the west Frankish lands, the eastern Frankish lands, and the MIddle Kingdom
→ faced by invasions from the Vikings, a Germanic people
sacked villages and towns, destroyed churches, and easily defeated small local armies
good at building ships, enabling them to sail up European rivers and to attack places far inland
began to build various European settlements
soon became part of European civilization
The Development of Feudalism
King: head of the kingdom but dominated by powerful nobles who maintained order on a local level
Lords (Nobles): powerful landowning group, needed to protect people and land from Viking invasions, employed vassals to fight for them
Vassals: served the lord in a military capacity
Knights: heavily armored cavalry who had great social prestige and served as the backbone of aristocracy
Peasants: poor people who worked the land
→ people began to turn to local nobles to protect them from the Vikings attacks
→ it became important to find a powerful lord who could offer protection in return for services
→ LED TO FEUDALISM + key idea is vassalage
Knights and Vassals
Vassal: a man who served a lord in a military capacity
warriors swore an oath of loyalty, leaders took care of the warriors’ needs in turn
→ Frankish army had originally consisted of foot soldiers + with swords, but horsemen became increasingly popular
Knights: heavily armored cavalry, had great social prestige and formed the backbone of the European aristocracy
Feudalism allowed powerful nobles to take control of large areas of land
The Feudal Contract
→ Loyalty to one’s lord was chief virtue
Fief: the grant of land made to a vassal
Vassals who held fiefs came to hold political authority within them
Many different people now maintained order as the Carolingian fell apart, and the separate powerful lords + their vassals increased
→ Feudalism became increasingly complicated
vassals had their own vassals, who might also have their own vassals.
lord-vassal relationship bound together greater and lesser landowners
Feudal Contract: a set of unwritten rules that determined the relationship between a lord and his vassal
lord had responsibilities to his vassals, his vassals had to perform military service to his lord (major obligation)
The Nobility of the Middle Ages
→ European feudal society was dominated by men whose chief concern was warfare
Vasals prepared to fight for their lords when called upon
Nobles included the kings, dukes, counts, barons, and even bishops
anyone who had large landed estates + considerable political power
Great lords + knights came to form a common group in aristocracy
Tournaments began to appear, and the joust (duel between two knights) became a main part of the tournament
→ Chivalry: an idea of civilized behavior
emerged under the influence of the Catholic church, gradually evolving among nobility
a code of ethics that knights were supposed to uphold
oath to defend the Church and defenseless people
expected to treat captives as honored guests instead of putting them in dungeons
expected to treat aristocratic women with respect
→ Women’s Role: women could legally hold property, but most remained under the control of men
lady of the castle had the manage the estate very often
responsible for overseeing food supply, maintaining supplies, and financial accounts
expected to be subservient to their husbands, but also many strong women who advised (and dominated) their husbands
Peasants, Trade, and Cities
The New Agriculture
→ Population Increase: European population rose dramatically during the High Middle Ages
Europeans settled + peaceful after the invasions of the Early Middle Ages stopped
population nearly doubled due to peace + increased food production
changes in technology aided growth of farming
the power of water + wind to do jobs instead of human/animal power
iron was crucial to make tools, mined in various parts of Europe
Carruca: heavy, wheeled plow with an iron plowshare
villages oftentimes shared their resources (animals, carrucas, etc)
shift from two-field to three-field crop rotation → increased food production
The Manorial System
Manor: agricultural estate that a lord ran and peasants worked
Serfs: peasants legally bound to the manor; ~60% of western Europeans were serfs
Labor: were required to give labor services, pay rents, and be subject to the lord’s control
worked land for the lord + themselves
worked three days a week for their lords + paid rents by giving the lords a share of their product
Legal rights: lords had a variety of legal rights over the serfs
serfs could not leave the manor without the lord’s permission
lords could try peasants in their own courts
lord’s duty to protect his serfs, maintaining safety to farm the land
Life as a Serf: very simple, activities determined by seasons of the year
little privacy in their homes
August + September: harvest time, crucial for making bread to survive in winter months
October: serfs worked the ground for the planting of winter crops
November: the slaughter of excess livestock
February + March: land was plowed for planting of spring crops
early summer was a fairly relaxed time
→ Serfs worked both their own land + the lords’ land, basic staple in diet was bread
The Revival of Trade
→ very gradual revival of trade
Italian cities developed a fleet of trading ships + became major trading centers in the Mediterranean
towns in Flanders were ideally located for northern European traders
Hanseatic League: an alliance of more than 100 northern European cities that banded together for mutual trade protection and economic opportunity
→ regular trade developed between Flanders and Italy
→ the counts of Champagne (northern France) initiated a series of annual trade fairs
→ Emergence of Banking: as trade increase, so did the demand for gold + silver coins
a new money system began to emerge
new trading companies + banking firms were set up to manage the exchange and sale of goods
part of the rise of commercial capitalism; an economic system in which people invested in trade + goods for profit
The Growth of Cities
→ revival of trade led to revival of cities
towns had greatly declined in the Early Middle Ages, many dwindling in size and population
merchants began to settle in old Roman cities, followed b craftspeople or artisans
→ many new cities and towns were founded near castles, along a trade route + river
Bourgeoisie (middle class): the merchants and artisans of these new cities came to be called this
Laws: most new towns were often part of a lord’s territory + subject to his authority
Lords and kings often sold the liberties that the townspeople wanted to them
included the right to buy and sell property, freedom from military service, a law guaranteeing their freedom, and the right for an escaped serf to become a free person
Government: medieval cities developed their own government for running the affairs of the community
only males who had been born in the city or who had lived there for some time were citizens
citizens elected the city council members, who served as judges + city officials that passed laws
only patricians (members of the wealthiest and most powerful families) were elected to public office
Physical Environment + Social Structure : medieval cities were surrounded by stone walls
often very dirty, a lot of air pollution occurred
more men than women lived in cities; women were expected to supervise the household, prepare meals, raise children, and manage finances
possible for women to lead quite independent lives
→ cities and towns became important centers of manufacturing a wide range of goods due to the revival of trade
→ Guilds were established by craftspeople and played a leading role in the economic life of cities; with guilds for almost every craft
→ Guilds set the standards for the quality of articles produced, fixed the price at which the goods could be sold, and determined the number of people who could enter a specific trade
The Growth of European Kingdoms
England in the High Middle Ages
→ ruled by Anglo-Saxons since the early fifth century
The Norman Conquest (1066)
William of Normandy defeated King Harold and his foot soldiers at the Battle of Hastings, then crowned king of England
Language: spoke French, but the marriage of the Normans with the Anglo-Saxon nobility gradually merged Anglo-Saxon and French into a new English language.
took a census known as the Domesday Book, the first census taken in Europe since Roman times
advanced the system of taxation established by Anglo-Saxon kings
Henry II and the Church
greatly enlarged the power of the English monarchy by expanding the power of royal courts
increased the number of criminal cases tried in the king’s court
devised means for taking property cases from local courts + moving them to royal courts
common law was created and began to replace law codes that varied from place to place
not very successful at imposing royal control over the Church, conflicts with Catholic Church
claimed the right to punish clergymen in royal courts
The Magna Carta
→ many English nobles disliked the amount of growth of the king’s power + rebelled during the reign of King John
Magna Carta: gave written recognition to the feudal custom that the relationship between king and vassals was based on mutual rights and obligations
nobles forced John to put his seal
ideas contained impact modern-day governments as well
gives strength to the idea that the power of the government is limited, not absolute
limits the king’s power to punish people outside the rule of law, cannot be random
Parliament: an important institution in the development of representative government
composed of two knights from every county, two people from every town, and all the nobles + bishops throughout England
granted taxes, discussed politics, and passed laws
France in the High Middle Ages
→ Carolingian Empire was divided into three sections, with the Western portion forming the core of the kingdom of France
→ Hugh Capet was established as king, and began the Capetian dynasty of French kings
→ many of the great dukes of France were more powerful than their own king, Capetians held little power
Philip II Augustus
turning point in the French Monarchy
expanded France’s income and power
fought wars against England to take control of new territories
Louis IX
deeply religious, was later made a saint by the Catholic Church
known for trying to bring justice to his people by hearing their complaints in person
Philip IV
made the monarchy stronger by expanding the royal bureaucracy
by 1300, France was the largest + best-governed monarchy in Europe
created a French parliament by meeting with members of three estates
the clergy (first estate), the nobles (second estate), and the townspeople and peasants (third estate)
began the Estates-General, the first French parliament
The Holy Roman Empire
Otto I
patron of German culture + brought the church under his control
protected the pope, and crowned emperor of the Romans in return
title had not been used since Charlemagne
created a new Roman Empire in the hands of the Germans as Germany grows in power
→ German kings attempted to rule both German and Italian lands
Frederick I and Frederick II
tried to create a new king of empire, instead of building a strong German kingdom
considered Italy the center of a “holy empire”, hence the name “Holy Roman Empire”
attempted to conquer northern Italy
pope opposed him, fearing that he wanted to include Rome and the Papal States in his empire
cities were unwilling to become his subjects, alliance between the pope and northern Italian cities defeated Frederick I
→ The struggle between popes and German emperors created many consequences
Germany was left in the hands of powerful German lords
ignored the emperor + created their own independent kingdoms
made the German monarchy weak + incapable of maintaining a strong monarchical state
German Holy Roman Emperor had no real power over either the German States or the Italian States, eventually consisting of many independent states + territories
Spain and the Umayyad Caliphate
→ most of Spain had become a Muslim province called Al-Andalus; Muslim rule over much of Spain lasted for centuries
→ Islamic caliphates had an impact on the social, cultural, and political development on this part of Europe
Religious Tolerance: non-Muslim groups were allowed to continue practicing their religions
non-Muslims had their own courts + could hold minor positions in government
ruled under the concept of Dhimmitude
they were subject to a special tax + other regulations
many people converted to Islam in Spain because of dhimmitude
Islamic Influence: Islamic rule significantly impacted Spanish culture
some influential aspects in language, although Spanish largely derives from Latin
very large influence on architecture, notably in the palace of Seville
Politics: the majority of Spain was under the rule of the caliphate/ Emir of Cordoba for centuries
pockets of Christian resistance remained
Reconquista: Christian re-conquest over the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate
Spain eventually divided into a collection of Christian kingdoms in the north + Muslim emirates in the south
Central and Eastern Europe
→ Slavic people were originally a single population in central Europe, but divided into three groups: the western, southern, and the eastern Slavs
→ split between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox
Slavic Europe
Western Slavs: formed the Polish and Bohemian kingdoms
German monks converted the Czechs in Bohemia + Slavs in Poland to Christianity
accepted Western Christianity + became part of the Roman Catholic Church and its Latin Culture
Eastern Slavs: people of Moravia that were converted to Orthodox Christianity by Byzantine missionaries
had no written language, so Cyril developed the Cyrillic alphabet
some settled in modern-day Ukraine + Russia
Southern Slavs: included the Croats, the Serbs, and the Bulgarians
many embraced Eastern Orthodoxy
cultural life was linked to the Byzantine state because of their acceptance of Eastern Orthodoxy
Kievan Rus and Mongol Rule
→ Swedish Vikings moved into Ukraine + Russia in search of plunder and new trade routes, eventually called “the Rus” by native peoples
a Viking leader, Oleg, settled in Kiev + created the Rus state known as the Principality of Kiev
opened trade with the Byzantines, increasing the prosperity of the Rus
extended control over the eastern Slavs + expanded Kiev
Viking ruling class eventually assimilated into Slavic population as intermarriage occurred
Growth of the principality of Kiev attracted Byzantine missionaries
led to the acceptance of Eastern Orthodox Christianity
Orthodox Christianity became the religion of the state, tying Russia politically and culturally to the Byzantine Empire
Kievan Rus reached its high point due to prosperous trade routes between the Baltic and the Black Seas
unfortunately ended due to civil wars + new invasions
Mongols invaded + conquered Russia due to its disunity
Negative: resulted in a loss of population in Europe as they destroyed cities + refugees fled
Positive: introduced several Eastern inventions, like gunpowder, to Europe
trade increased under Mongol rule
Mongol rule led to the eventual unification of Russia
Medieval Christianity
The Papal Monarchy
→ the popes of the Catholic Church claimed supremacy over the affairs of the Church
→ eventually gained control of territories in central Italy came be known as the Papal States
→ Church became involved in the feudal system
→ chief officials of the Church came to hold their offices as grants from nobles
→ vassals were obliged to carry out feudal services, including military duties
→ Bishops and abbots they chose were often wordly figures who cared little about their spiritual duties
Reform of the Papacy
Church was very powerful, owned land, and practiced feudalism
Church leaders realized the need to be free from the lords’ interference in the appointment of Church officials
given a ring and staff upon appointment that symbolized the spiritual authority with which the Church granted the official
Lay Investiture: secular rulers usually chose nominees to Church offices and gave them the symbols of their office
Pope Gregory VII
convinced that he had been chosen by God to reform the Church
Gregory claimed that he, as the pope, was truly God’s “vicar on earth” and that the pope’s authority extended over all the Christian world
believed that only by eliminating lay investiture could the Church regain its freedom
→ had conflict with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Germany, over these claims
Investiture Controversy: struggle between Henry IV and Gregory VII
one of the great conflicts between church and state in the High Middle Ages
dragged on until a new German king and a new pope reached a compromise known as the Concordat of Worms
a bishop in Germany was first elected by Church officials
invested him with the symbols of temporal office
The Church Supreme
Pope Gregory VII tried to improve the Church’s ability to provide spiritual guidance to the faithful
popes did not give up the reform ideals of Pope Gregory VII, but were even more inclined to strengthen papal power and build a strong administrative system
Pope Innocent III
strong belief in papal supremacy
used spiritual weapons (Interdicts) at his command
Interdict: forbids priests from giving the sacraments (Christian rites) of the Church to a particular group of people
New Religious Orders
→ religious enthusiasm seized Europe, leading to a rise in the number of monasteries and the emergence of new monastic orders
1) Cistercians: founded by a group of monks who were unhappy with the lack of discipline at their own Benedictine monastery
spread rapidly from southern France into the rest of Europe
very strict, ate a simple diet and each had only a single robe
decorations were eliminated from their churches and monastic buildings
more time for prayer + manual labor was gained by spending fewer hour at religious services
took their religion to people outside the monastery
Women in Religious Orders
new roles in religious life
the number of women joining religious houses also grew dramatically
most nuns were from the ranks of the landed aristocracy, most learned women were nuns
female intellectuals found convents a haven for their activities
2) Franciscans: founded by Francis of Assisi
born to a wealthy Italian family merchant in Assisi, faced a series of dramatic spiritual experiences
led him to abandon all worldly goods and to live and preach in poverty, working for his needs
simplicity, joyful nature, and love for others attracted a band of followers
became very popular, living among the people and preaching repentance and aiding the poor
3) Dominicans: founded by a Spanish priest
wanted to defend Church teachings from heresy: the denial of basic Church doctrines, emerging from the spiritual revival of the High Middle Ages
believed that a new religious order of men who lived in poverty + preach effectively would be best at attacking heresy
The Inquisition
Inquisition (Holy Office): a court created by the Church to deal with heretics
developed a regular procedure for identifying and trying heretics
Dominicans became especially well known for their role as examiners
those who confessed to heresy performed public penance + received punishment
→ eventually added the element of tortue to extract confessions
heresy was a crime against God and humanity, so using force to save souls was the right thing to do
Religion in the High Middle Ages
Catholic Church: a very crucial part of ordinary people’s lives from birth to death
rites were practiced in similar ways throughout western + northern Europe
helped make Roman Catholic Christianity a unifying social factor in medieval Europe
Sacraments: were seen as means for receiving God’s grade + necessary for salvation
baptism, marriage, and the Eucharist (communion)
people depended on the clergy because only they could administer these rites
ordinary people venerated saints, most coming from the Christian Bible
Relics; similar emphasis as to saints
usually bones of saints or objects connected with saints
believed to provide a link between the earthly world and God
deemed that they could heal people/produce other miracles
The Crusades
The Early Crusades
Background: began when the Byzantine emperor asked for help against the Seljuk Turks
Seljuk Turks: Muslims who took control of Asia Minor
Pope Urban II saw an opportunity to provide leadership for a great cause
cause = rallying Europe’s warriors to free Jerusalem + the Holy Land from infidels (followers of other religions) → the Seljuk Turks
Warriors of western Europe, particularly France, formed the first crusading armies
many different reasons/motivations: religious fervor, desire for adventure, gaining wealth, and new trade
Byzantines became doubtful; might prove harmful to the Byzantine Empire as the army had to go through Byzantine lands
First Crusade made their way to the East, which included thousands of men in cavalry + infantry
captured Antioch, proceeded down the Palestinian coast, avoided the well-defended coastal cities, and reach Jerusalem
Second Crusade: total failure, even with two powerful leaders (Louis VII + Conrad III)
Jerusalem eventually fell to Muslim forces
Third Crusade: German emperor, English king, and French king
Third crusade negotiated a settlement that permitted Christian pilgrims access to Jerusalem
The Later Crusades
Pope Innocent III initiated the Fourth Crusade, after the Muslim ruler (Saladin) of Jerusalem’s death
The Fourth Crusade became involved in a fight over the Byzantine throne
Attacked Constantinople, adding to the division between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church
dramatically weakened the Byzantine emperor
Impact of Crusades
not much impact, according to Historians
benefited the Italian port cities, but not by much
very tragic impact on interactions between Christians + Jewish societies
first widespread attacks on Jewish people began in the context of the Crusades
very large impact on politics
helped to break down feudalism
kings levied taxes + raised armies, creating stronger central governments as nobles lost power
→ led to the development of true nation-states + contributed to the end of medieval Europe
Culture of the Middle Ages
Architecture
Churches: witnessed a dramatic building of churches in Europe
Cathedrals built in Romanesque style, return to architectural principles of Rome
included rounded arched vaults, used massive pillars
Gothic style also emerged, replaced Romanesque, made possible with two advancements
the replacement of round barrel vaults with ribbed vaults + pointed arches, making Gothic churches higher
the flying buttress: a heavy, arched support of stone built onto the outside of the walls
Gothic style cathedrals were built higher up like reaching to God
Gothic style cathedrals had many windows, depicting religious scenes + scenes from daily life
Universities
→ first European university appeared in Bologna, Italy
→ first Northern European university was University of Paris
→ university in Oxford, England became very prominent
Studies:began with traditional liberal arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, etc)
Theology: the study of religion and God
strongly influenced by a philosophical system known as scholasticism
tried to reconcile faith + reason, showing that faith was in harmony with reason
harmonize Christian teachings with the works of Greek philosophers
Thomas Aquinas made the most famous attempt to reconcile Aristotle with the doctrines of Christianity (Summa Theological)
Vernacular Literature
→ Latin was the universal language of medieval civilization, but new literature was being written in vernacular (the language of everyday speech in a particular region like Spanish, French, English, etc)
1) Troubadour Poetry: chiefly the product of nobles + knights
2) Chanson de geste (heroic epic)
The Late Middle Ages
The Black Death
The Great Famine
a drop in overall temperatures led to shorter growing seasons + bad weather conditions (“little ice age”)
heavy rains in northern Europe destroyed harvests and caused food shortages → extreme hunger and starvation
eventually expanded to other parts of Europe, leading to chronic malnutrition + higher susceptibility to disease
Bubonic Plague
→ spread by black rats infested with fleas carrying deadly bacterium
→ followed trade routes, brought by Italian merchants
→ possibly killed more than 1/3 of the population!!!!! ~25 million people
many people believed it to be a punishment from God for their sins or the devil caused it
led to anti-Semitism, falsely accused of causing the plagues
many economic consequences
trade declined, dramatic rise in the price of labor
falling prices due to decline in people
freed people from serfdom, contributing to the end of medieval Europe
Decline of Church Power
The Popes of Avignon
→ European kings began to reject papal claims of supremacy
Pope Boniface VIII vs. King Philip IV
→ Philip claimed the right to tax the clergy, but Boniface argued that taxing the clergy required the pope’s consent, because the pope was supreme over both Church and state
→ Philip rejected the Pope’s position
sentiments against the papacy grew during this time, believing that the pope as bishop of Rome should reside in Rome rather than Avignon
→ Pope Gregory XI eventually returned to Rome
The Great Schism
→ A new, Italian pope was elected by the cardinals, but a group of French cardinals declared this election to be invalid and later chose a Frenchman as people, who eventually returned to Avignon
→ TWO POPES, began the Great Schism of the Church, dividing Europe and supporting two different popes
Impact: damaged the Church + politically
popes were believed to be the true leader of Christendom, but as each line of popes denounced the other as the Antichrist, people’s faith in papacy and the Church were undermined
Schism ended in Switzerland as a Church council finally met, new pope was elected together
Catholic Church Reforms: called for an end to clerical corruption + excessive papal power within the Church
John Hus (main leader of these reforms) was accused of heresy and burned at the stake
in response, Bohemians led a revolutionary upheaval
→ The Church had eventually lost much of its political power
The pope no longer had any supremacy over the state
the papacy and the Church lost much of their authority as people lost faith in the papacy
The Hundred Years’ War
→ Trouble began over the duchy of Gascony in France, fought over by England vs. France
peasant foot soldiers won the chief battles of the war
France’s Army: King Philip VI started the war by seizing the duchy
heavily armed noble cavalrymen + viewed foot soldiers as social inferiors
English Army: King Edward II held the duchy of Gascony, declared War on France,
heavily armed cavalry, but relied more on large numbers of peasants who were paid to be foot soldiers
The Battle of Crecy: The English army devastated the larger French army as they attacked in a disorderly fashion
English did not have enough resources to conquer all of France, but they continued to try anyways
achieved victory at the Battle of Agincourt
JOAN OF ARC!!!!! → a deeply religious peasant but saved the timid monarch
brought the war to a turning point but did not live to see its end
inspired the French army to find new confidence and seize land
france wins war in the end
Impact
the steady defeat of knights with the use of longbow + pike + gunpowder reduced the importance of knights in warfare
reduced the overall need for knights + lessened their importance to the feudal order
contributed to decline of feudalism
Political Recovery
→ many hereditary monarchies/dynasties in Europe were unable to produce male heirs
→ many founders of new dynasties had to fight for their positions when groups of nobles supported opposing candidates
→ recovery set in as a number of new rulers in Europe attempted to reestablish the centralized power of monarchies
France
→ greatly affected by the Hundred Years’ War
→ strong feelings of nationalism
→ greatly advanced by King Louis XI
“the Spider”, due to his devious ways
strengthened the use of taille (annual direct tax usually on land/property) by establishing it as a permanent tax
relied on support from lower nobility. middle class
many successful conquests + expanded France’s size
consolidated power + promoted industry and commerce = strong monarchy
England
→ very poor due to the Hundred Years’ War
→ many civil conflicts between monarchy + nobles
First Tudor king, Henry VII
created a strong royal government
ended the wars of the nobles by abolishing their private armies
did not overburden the nobles + middle class with taxes
Spain
→ experienced the growth of strong national monarchy
→ Several independent Christian kingdoms emerged in the course of the long reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula, including Aragon and Castile
Unification of Spain: occurred when Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon
worked together to strengthen their royal control in the dual monarchy
believed that religious unity was necessary for political unity, pursuing a policy of strict conformity to Catholicism, meaning the forced conversion of all other followers
expelled Spain of all remaining Jews who did not convert
“To be Spanish was to be Catholic”
Central and Eastern Europe
Roman Empire: the Holy Roman Empire did not develop a strong monarchical authority
Germany was a land of hundreds of states, most of which acted independently
the position of Holy Roman emperor was eventually held by the Hapsburg dynasty
Difficulties: many Eastern European rulers found it difficult to centralize their states
religious differences troubled the area as Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and other groups confronted one another
Russia: eventually overthrew Mongol domination
Ivan III removed the Mongol domination
Ivan IV was recognized as the legitimate ruler and czar of Russia by the Orthodox Church