Psychology: Science, Methods, and Fields

Psychology as a Science

  • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
  • Topics of interest include:
    • nervous system
    • sensation and perception
    • learning and memory
    • intelligence
    • language
    • thought
    • growth and development
    • personality
    • stress and health
    • psychological disorders and treatments
    • sexual behavior
    • behavior of people in social settings (groups and organizations)
  • Sciences have goals: describe, explain, predict, and control the events they study. Psychology seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes.
  • Important clarification about control: psychologists seek to understand factors influencing behavior and apply this knowledge for the public good (e.g., helping individuals cope with anxiety, depression, social pressure); control does not mean making people do one’s bidding, like puppets on strings.
  • Descriptive terms (e.g., anxiety, depression) are often woven into theories; theories propose reasons for relationships among events. Example: perception of a threat can arouse feelings of anxiety.
  • Theories may combine statements about behavior (e.g., eating, aggression), mental processes (attitudes, mental images), and biological processes. Example: responses to drugs (alcohol, marijuana) can be measured as overt behavior and are presumed to reflect mental expectations and biological effects.
  • A satisfactory psychological theory should allow prediction of behavior. Example: a theory of hunger should predict when people will or will not eat.
  • If observations cannot be adequately explained or predicted by a theory, the theory should be revised or replaced.
  • The remainder of this chapter provides an overview of psychology as a science, highlighting:
    • diverse interests and fields
    • the history of psychology
    • major perspectives in psychology
    • research methods used to study behavior and mental processes

1-1a. What Psychologists Do

  • Psychologists share a keen interest in behavior but may differ in other ways.
  • Roles include research, practice, and teaching.
  • Some researchers focus on basic (pure) research:
    • Pure research is undertaken for its own sake and has no immediate application to problems.
    • Despite this, pure research often enhances future applications (e.g., early 20th-century pure research on learning and motivation in pigeons, rats, and monkeys led to modern educational practices such as the role of repetition and booster shots in learning).
    • Pure research into the nervous system has improved understanding of disorders like epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer's disease.
  • Applied research is designed to solve specific personal or social problems.
  • Many psychologists do not conduct research; they practice psychology by applying psychological knowledge to help individuals change their behavior to meet personal goals more effectively.
  • Some psychologists primarily teach, sharing psychological knowledge in classrooms, seminars, and workshops.
  • Psychologists may engage in all three roles: research, practice, and teaching.

1-1b. Fields of Psychology

  • Psychologists work in a number of specialties; many wear more than one hat, but most work in the following fields:

  • Clinical psychologists

    • Help people with psychological disorders adjust to life’s demands.
    • Evaluate problems (e.g., anxiety, depression) through interviews and psychological tests.
    • Help clients resolve problems and change self-defeating behavior.
    • Example: exposure to feared situations (e.g., public speaking) by gradual exposure to real or virtual groups (virtual therapy referenced in Chapter 13).
    • Largest subgroup of psychologists (see Figure 1.1).

  • Counseling psychologists

    • Similar methods to clinical psychologists (interviews and tests).
    • Clients typically have adjustment problems but not serious disorders.
    • Examples: academic or vocational decisions; coping with prejudice and discrimination (e.g., LGBT clients).

  • School psychologists

    • Employed by school systems to identify and assist students with problems that interfere with learning.
    • Help schools decide on placement of students in special classes.

  • Educational psychologists

    • Facilitate learning; focus on course planning and instructional methods for a school system.
    • Research issues include how learning is affected by:
    • motivation
    • intelligence
    • sociocultural factors (poverty, acculturation)
    • teachers

  • Developmental psychologists

    • Study changes across the lifespan: physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes.
    • Seek to sort out influences of heredity and the environment on development.

  • Personality psychologists

    • Identify and measure human traits; determine influences on thought processes, feelings, and behavior.
    • Key concerns: anxiety, aggression, sexual orientation, and gender roles.

  • Origins of aggression and related topics

    • Psychologists investigate origins of aggression and violence.
    • Studies have linked aggressive individuals to certain behaviors (e.g., correlations with violent video game use).
    • Important questions include causation vs. selection effects (does playing violent games cause aggression, or do aggressive individuals seek out these games?).
    • Note: More on this topic appears in Chapter 5.

  • Social psychologists

    • Focus on the nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations.
    • Distinct from personality psychologists, who look inward at traits; social psychology emphasizes social influences on behavior.

  • Environmental psychologists

    • Study how people and the environment (natural and built) influence one another.
    • Examples: extreme temperatures and loud noises can interfere with learning; research on encouraging recycling, preserving wilderness, and addressing climate change.

  • Experimental psychologists

    • Conduct experiments across various specialties; focus on basic processes such as the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion.
    • They may work with humans or animals (e.g., pigeons, rats) to study learning.

  • Industrial (or organizational) psychology

    • Industrial psychologists focus on the relationships between people and their work.
    • Organizational psychologists study behavior of people in organizations (e.g., businesses).
    • Human factors psychologists work to make technical systems more user-friendly (e.g., automobile dashboards, computer keyboards).

  • Consumer psychology

    • Study shopper behavior to predict and influence how people buy.
    • They advise store managers on practical strategies, such as:
    • aisle layouts to boost impulse buying
    • window displays to attract customers
    • designing newspaper ads and TV commercials to be more persuasive

  • Health psychology

    • Examine the effects of stress on health problems (e.g., headaches, cardiovascular disease, cancer).
    • Guide clients toward healthier behaviors (e.g., regular exercise, quitting smoking).

  • Forensic psychology

    • Apply psychology to the criminal justice system.
    • Address legal matters (e.g., insanity evaluations) and treat psychologically ill offenders.
    • Consult with attorneys on jury selection and analyze offenders’ behavior and mental processes.
    • Conduct research on eyewitness testimony, methods of interrogation, and related topics.

  • Sports psychology

    • Help athletes focus on performance and not on the crowd.
    • Use cognitive strategies such as positive visualization to enhance performance and prevent choking under pressure.

  • Demographic trends and distribution (context mentioned in Figure 1.1)

    • More women and members of ethnic minorities are entering the field.
    • The percentage of new psychologists with PsyD degrees is growing.

  • Note on distribution and terminology

    • School and educational psychology are distinct subfields with different primary emphases (individual learning vs. system-wide instructional planning).

  • Miscellaneous notes

    • The discussion of fields reflects the breadth of psychology and its application to real-world problems.
    • Ethical, philosophical, and practical implications arise from applying psychological knowledge to society, including questions about influence, consent, and public welfare.

  • Connections to broader course content

    • This overview links to major theoretical perspectives, experimental methods, and real-world applications in clinical, educational, organizational, and health contexts.