Chapter 17 Reading

I. Introduction

  • The American West historically dominated by Native Americans.

    • Indigenous groups controlled most of the land west of the Mississippi until the 19th century.

    • Integration of traders (Spanish, French, British, American) into regional economies.

    • Pre-Civil War conditions characterized by a lack of political control over the regions by any imperial power.

    • After Civil War: Shift to focus on westward expansion as slavery was no longer a pressing issue.

    • Industrialization and railroads facilitated the movement of American settlers westward.

    • Major outcomes of the westward migration:

    • Conquest of Native lands often violating treaties.

    • Establishment of territories and states by the United States.

    • Marked the first time the U.S. fully controlled land between the oceans.

    • Complex narratives:

    • Triumph for settlers.

    • Tragedy for Indigenous peoples, reshaping their lives and cultural identities.

II. Post-Civil War Westward Migration

  • Record numbers of settlers crossing the Mississippi River after the Civil War.

    • Movement beyond states like California and Oregon into the vast lands of the continent's heart.

    • Initial waves driven by gold/silver rushes:

    • Noteworthy gold strikes:

      • California (1848-1849)

      • Colorado (1858)

      • Nevada (1859)

      • Idaho (1860)

      • Montana (1863)

      • Black Hills (1874)

    • Mining workforce demographic:

    • Many men were single and dependent on nearby service industries (boardinghouses, saloons).

    • Women contributed to household management and worked in various service jobs.

    • Entrepreneurs profited more from the mining industry's ancillary businesses.

    • Economic insight:

    • Colorado gold strikes (first seven years: $25.5 million) were less than half of invested amounts.

  • The economic role of bison hunting:

    • Bison herds provided hides for industrial applications and clothing production.

    • Bison population decline due to overhunting; from over 10 million to few hundred by early 1880s.

    • Railroads promoted cattle ranching, resulting in a shift from bison to cattle on the Plains.

III. The Indian Wars and Federal Peace Policies

  • Early tensions surfaced in 1862 between Dakota Nation and white settlers in Minnesota.

    • Population change:

    • 1850 census recorded 6,000 whites; by statehood (1862): 150,000.

    • Emergence of violent encounters; starvation and failed treaties aggravated the situation.

  • Key events in Dakota War (1862):

    • Initial killings of settlers by four Dakota men leading to retaliatory violence.

    • Mass casualties ensued with military involvement and a series of skirmishes.

  • The Indian Wars: Complex local engagements, not just brief conflicts with military forces.

    • Cultural and economic clashes evident:

    • Settler encroachment disrupted Indigenous lifestyles reliant on buffalo.

  • Federal policies focusing on isolation of Native Americans following the Civil War:

    • Increase in military actions against tribes; U.S. military generals played key roles.

  • Specific battles:

    • Battle of Wood Lake marked the end of the Dakota War.

    • Over 2,000 Dakota imprisoned, with 303 tried for various charges. Lincoln commuted sentences for nearly all.

IV. Beyond the Plains

  • Impact of westward expansion on other Indigenous groups (e.g., Utes, Paiutes).

    • Utes and Paiutes were forced out by settlers, impacting their populations heading to Colorado and Utah.

  • The Long Walk: General Carleton enforced the relocation of Navajo to Bosque Redondo, where conditions became unsustainable and led to widespread suffering.

  • The Treaty of Bosque Redondo (1868): Allowed Navajo return to homeland after unbearable conditions on the reservation.

  • Highlight of military campaigns:

    • Modoc resistance and the consequential guerrilla war.

    • Nez Perce led by Chief Joseph's escape attempt to Canada; captivation of U.S. interests and subsequent surrender highlighted the repeated conflicts across the West.

V. Western Economic Expansion: Railroads and Cattle

  • Growth in American economy post-Civil War driven by ranching and railroads:

    • Railroads viewed as primary force behind westward economic development.

  • Impact of railroads: Connected the continent and reshaped the economy.

    • Transcontinental railroad:

    • Construction funded through significant government subsidies via Pacific Railroad Act (1862) offering land and loans per mile of track laid.

    • By 1871, transportation networks transformed national economy.

  • Labor demands from railroad development:

    • Dependence on immigrant labor drove workforce growth.

  • Cattle ranching boom in the American West:

    • Shift towards cattle over bison with profits rising for ranchers.

    • Cowboy culture emergence, including famed cattle drives up established trails (e.g., Chisholm Trail).

  • Economic profits and hardships faced by cowboys:

    • Cattle worth increased dramatically post-war; $4 in Texas to $40 in Kansas.

    • Work conditions were grueling and low-paying, despite potential for ownership.

VI. The Allotment Era and Resistance in the Native West

  • Allotment policies from the U.S. government aimed to individualize Native lands:

    • Dawes Act (1887) divided reservations into homesteads for Indigenous families.

    • Land lost its collective nature; U.S. laws superseded tribal governance.

  • Cultural implications:

    • Significant disruption of Indigenous way of life; weakened sovereignty and communal existence.

    • The Ghost Dance and emergence of spiritual resistance among Natives transcending into social movements.

VII. Rodeos, Wild West Shows, and the Mythic American West

  • Cultural fabric of the American West marketed through literature, events, and shows:

    • Emergence of Wild West shows; portrayal of iconic cowboy life as central entertainment across the country.

  • Notable figures:

    • Buffalo Bill Cody and others popularized frontiersman myths through grand narratives in shows and literature.

    • Women played roles within rodeos challenging gender norms but also conforming to societal expectations.

VIII. The West as History: the Turner Thesis

  • Frederick Jackson Turner's frontier thesis posited the importance of the American frontier in shaping democracy and civilization.

    • His views reflected a romanticized notion of westward migration as a civilizing force.

  • Critique of Turner's thesis:

    • Ignored the complexities of diverse histories, racial tensions, and technological impacts.

    • Nonetheless, shaped historical perspectives for decades.

IX. Primary Sources

  1. Chief Joseph’s recorded remarks on Indian policy.

  2. William T. Hornaday’s accounts on bison extermination.

  3. Congressional directive regarding Native affairs.

  4. Chief Joseph’s surrender speech.

  5. Harold Jackson's documentation of the Wounded Knee Massacre.

  6. Contemporary critiques of educational policies towards Native Americans.

X. Reference Material

  • Various citations of key texts and historical accounts pertinent to understanding the American West’s development, conflicts, and cultural connotations.