6. Memory (Model and LTM)

Introduction to Long-Term Memory (LTM)

  • Long-term memory (LTM) is the system used for the storage of information over extended periods.

  • It can hold a vast amount of information almost indefinitely, connecting past experiences with present situations.

Characteristics of LTM

  • Storage Capacity:

    • Despite seeming limitations, it can store a diverse range of information, including:

      • Personal memories

      • General knowledge

      • Beliefs about the world

  • Dynamic Nature:

    • LTM is not a passive store; it actively revises and modifies information based on new insights.

Brain Structures Involved in LTM

  • Frontal Cortex:

    • Plays a significant role in storing permanent memories and deep processing.

  • Hippocampus:

    • Crucial for memory formation, with studies showing it reactivates during sleep to consolidate memories.

    • Research:

      • Rats' hippocampal cells demonstrate activation during learning and sleeping phases (Scaggs & McNaughton, 1996; Wilson & McNaughton, 1994).

      • Human studies illustrate increased hippocampal activity correlating with recall success (Peigneux et al., 2004).

Factors Affecting Memory

  • Degree of Initial Encoding:

    • The way information is processed initially affects how well it is remembered.

  • Frequency of Rehearsal:

    • Repetition of information aids in long-term retention.

Types of Long-Term Memory

1. Explicit (Declarative) Memory

  • Involves conscious recall of facts and events.

  • Examples:

    • Semantic Memory (general knowledge)

    • Episodic Memory (personal experiences)

2. Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

  • Involves skills and actions performed without conscious thought.

  • Examples:

    • Procedural Memory (learning motor skills, e.g., riding a bicycle)

Autobiographical Memories

  • Refers to the recollection of personal history, constructed rather than exact recounting.

  • Self-esteem influences recall; higher self-esteem results in better recall of positive events.

Flashbulb Memories

  • A vivid and detailed recollection of important events.

  • Characteristics of flashbulb memories:

    • Emotional significance

    • Personal importance

  • Examples:

    • Dramatic or shocking news events.

Tasks for Measuring Memory

Recall vs. Recognition

  • Recall:

    • Retrieving information without cues.

  • Recognition:

    • Identifying previously encountered information.

  • General findings:

    • Recognition is typically better than recall.

    • Recall tasks promote deeper processing than recognition tasks.

Memory Strategies and Techniques

1. Mnemonic Devices

  • Techniques to improve memory encoding and recall.

    • Method of Loci:

      • Associating information with familiar locations.

    • Pegword System:

      • Linking information with a memorized list through imagery.

    • Key Word System:

      • Creating associations between unfamiliar and familiar words.

    • Linking System:

      • Using a narrative to connect items for memorization.

    • Categorical Clustering:

      • Organizing information into categories.

    • Acrostics and Acronyms:

      • Using the first letters of words to create memorable cues.

Mechanisms of Forgetting

1. Primacy Effect

  • Information presented first is remembered better.

2. Recency Effect

  • Newer information is retained better if recently learned.

3. Decay Theory

  • Memory traces fade over time without reinforcement.

4. Interference Theory

  • Forgetting occurs from overlap between new and old information:

    • Retroactive Interference:

      • New information disrupts recall of old information.

    • Proactive Interference:

      • Old information disrupts learning of new information.

Models of Memory

1. Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart)

  • Suggests memory retention is influenced by processing depth:

    • Shallow Processing:

      • Focus on superficial characteristics.

    • Deep Processing:

      • Focus on meaning and associations, leading to better retention.

2. Structural Models

  • Propose separate structures for memory processing (e.g., Atkinson & Shiffrin).

Self-Reference Effect

  • Tendency to remember information better when it is self-relevant.

  • Engaging with self-schema enhances memory retention.