The Young Nation and Its Young Military Challenged: 1789-1812

INTRODUCTION AND IDEOLOGICAL DIVIDES

• Constitutional Transition: Despite the major improvements the new Constitution offered over the previous Articles of Confederation, the United States remained weak and vulnerable in its early stages.
• The Anti-Federalist (Republican) View: This faction was driven by idealism, holding that the nation could defend itself primarily through a citizen militia. They believed a patriotic call to arms during a crisis would suffice for national defense.
• The Federalist View: Taken from a more realistic perspective, Federalists maintained that only a professional regular army and a robust navy could protect the nation against foreign designs.
• Partisan Conflict: Competing partisan visions made the creation of a sound military policy difficult, leading to a compromising and reactionary course that often placed the nation's existence at risk.

THREATS TO THE YOUNG REPUBLIC

• External Territorial Threats:
  • Great Britain: Retained control of Canada.
  • Indian Confederations: Held significant power along much of the American frontier.
  • Spain: Controlled Florida.
  • France: Republican France regained the vast Louisiana Territory.
• Impact of European Conflict: Despite geographic separation via the ocean, the ongoing wars between Great Britain and Napoleonic France significantly impacted the United States.
• National Security Challenges: The nation had to overcome the politicization of military affairs and react to unforeseen threats, including the Quasi War with France, Indian conflicts in the Northwest Territory, Barbary pirates, and the Napoleonic Wars. These were driven by an "ill-concealed craving" for economic growth and territorial expansion.

BUILDING AN ARMY AND THE MILITIA DEBATE

• Opposition to a Standing Army: Traditional fears of a standing army and strong support for citizen militias blocked President George Washington’s efforts to establish a viable regular army.
• State Control: States jealously guarded their militias. These units often resembled social clubs more than effective military forces, offering more prestige than actual combat readiness.
• Economic Limitations: The federal government lacked the funds to support state militias or a national army.
• Legislative Actions in 1792:
  • Calling Forth Act of 1792: Authorized the president as commander-in-chief to call out the militia to enforce laws or suppress rebellions. This required a federal judge to certify that civil authorities had lost control. Crucially, it did not mention using the militia to stop foreign invasions.
  • Uniform Militia Act of 1792: Required all able-bodied men aged $18$ to $45$ to enroll in local units and provide their own weapons and equipment. It limited service to no more than $3$ months in a $12$-month period.
  • Washington's Assessment: Washington viewed these laws as total failures because they lacked penalties for state non-compliance. States continued to use regionalized models, local officer appointments, and inconsistent training.

THE LEGION OF THE UNITED STATES AND REORGANIZATION

• Initial Forces (1790): The U.S. Army consisted of the $1\text{st}$ American Regiment and an artillery battalion, totaling just over $1,200$ men.
• The Legion of the United States (1790-1792):
  • Origin: Created by Secretary of War Henry Knox, based on the old Roman legion system.
  • Structure: A mixed force of infantry, cavalry, and artillery. It consisted of four sub-legions, each containing $1,080$ men.
  • Function: Allowed for organizational flexibility to meet various crises.
  • Political Justification: Congress preferred the term "legion" because it did not evoke the negative connotations of a "standing army."
• Further Reorganizations:
  • 1796: The Legion was reorganized into the $1\text{st}$, $2\text{nd}$, $3\text{rd}$, and $4\text{th}$ Regiments of Infantry, plus a Corps of Artillerists and Engineers.
  • 1798: Cavalry was organized into the Regiment of Light Dragoons.
  • 1808: A light artillery regiment and a regiment of riflemen were created.
  • 1807-1812: Additional regiments were authorized due to escalating tensions with Britain and France.

FRONTIER CONFLICTS: HARMAR AND ST. CLAIR’S DEFEAT

• Indian Resistance in the Northwest Territory: Tribes including the Delaware, Miami, Ottawa, Cherokee, Shawnee, and Chippewa resisted settler encroachment. This was often instigated by the British, who refused to withdraw from western posts.
• Josiah Harmar’s Expedition (1790):
  • Objective: Punish renegade Shawnee and Cherokee raider bands.
  • Outcome: A disaster. Discipline was poor between militia and regulars. Harmar split his forces, allowing Indians to engage smaller units. The force retreated after losing $200$ men, traveling only $10$ miles per day due to a cumbersome baggage train.
• St. Clair’s Defeat (1791):
  • Preparation: Major General Arthur St. Clair was authorized to lead $3,000$ men, including a new regiment of regulars and "levies" (volunteers intended to establish federal control over state militias).
  • Failures: Logistics were non-existent; soldiers lacked clothing and ammunition. Smallpox ravaged the camps. St. Clair demonstrated poor leadership, absenting himself for frivolous errands.
  • The Battle (November 4, 1791): While camped along the Wabash River, over $1,000$ Miami and allied warriors (including a young Tecumseh) under Little Turtle attacked. The militia fled; regulars held for $3$ hours before breaking.
  • Casualties: Over $600$ Americans killed and $300$ wounded. It remains one of the worst disasters for American arms.

THE RISE OF ANTHONY WAYNE AND THE BATTLE OF FALLEN TIMBERS

• Command: Washington chose General "Mad" Anthony Wayne to lead a new, expanded force.
• Training: Wayne used two years of failed diplomacy to rigorously train and equip his army into a disciplined force.
• Fort Greenville: In October 1793, supply issues and disease forced Wayne to winter at this newly built fort.
• British Involvement: Proof of British support for Indian attacks emerged when Chief Joseph Brant claimed British agents were paying for scalps. The British also built Fort Miamis on the Maumee River.
• The Battle of Fallen Timbers (August 20, 1794):
  • Action: Wayne’s scouts engaged Indians and Canadian militia in an area of debris. Wayne pushed them toward Fort Miamis.
  • The Gates: The British refused to open the fort's gates to their Indian allies to avoid war with the U.S. This effectively disintegrated the Indian alliance.
• Treaty of Greenville (1795): Concluded the conflict, giving the U.S. control of the region and paving the way for Jay's Treaty, which finally removed the British from American territory.

THE WHISKEY REBELLION

• Cause: Farmers in western Pennsylvania violently resisted the federal excise tax on whiskey, passed to reduce the national debt. Whiskey was used as a medium of exchange in rural areas.
• Crisis: Mobs attacked tax collectors; government functions ceased. Supreme Court Justice James Wilson certified that the courts no longer operated.
• Federal Response: Washington called for $15,000$ militia from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Virginia, and Maryland.
• Significance: Washington personally led the force for several weeks (before handing command to Henry Lee and Alexander Hamilton) to demonstrate federal authority. The rebellion collapsed at Pittsburgh; only a handful were arrested and two pardoned for treason.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE U.S. MILITARY ACADEMY AT WEST POINT

• Origins: West Point was a fort on the Hudson River and headquarters for the Corps of Artillerists and Engineers. Initially, foreign officers were used for training due to a lack of skilled American instructors.
• Hamilton’s Plan (1799): Proposed five schools for specific branches; it was defeated in Congress by Republicans who feared Federalist domination.
• Jefferson’s Peace Establishment Act of 1802:
  • Action: Formally established the U.S. Military Academy.
  • Irony: Jefferson, a long-time opponent of standing armies and academies (citing lack of Constitutional authority), used the academy to replace Federalist officers with Republicans.
  • Instruction: The curriculum was originally mediocre, focusing on basic math and military fortifications.

THE BIRTH OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY

• Context: By 1785, the Continental Navy had ceased to exist. American merchants lost the protection of the British Royal Navy after independence.
• Barbary Pirates: Morocco, Tripoli, Algiers, and Tunis operated an extortion racket in the Mediterranean, seizing ships and demanding ransom/tribute.
• Naval Act of 1794: Authorized the creation of six frigates. These were intended to be first-rate ships to signal American power.
  • USS Congress: $38$ guns (Portsmouth, NH).
  • United States: $44$ guns (Philadelphia, PA, designed by Joshua Humphreys).
  • USS Constitution: $44$ guns (Boston, MA).
  • USS President: $44$ guns (New York, NY).
  • Constellation: $38$ guns (Baltimore, MD).
  • Chesapeake: $38$ guns (Norfolk, VA).
• Funding: Congress appropriated nearly $\$700,000$ for their construction.

THE JAY TREATY AND DIPLOMATIC TENSIONS

• The Treaty (1795): Negotiated by Chief Justice John Jay to resolve issues with Britain.
  • Terms: Britain agreed to evacuate Northwest forts and open trade in India. The U.S. granted navigation rights on the Mississippi to the British.
  • Failures: Did not stop impressment, did not secure compensation for slaves taken by the British, and did not recognize American neutrality.
• Factional Response: Hamiltonians supported the treaty for trade; Jeffersonians hated it for abandoning the French alliance. Protesters burned Jay in effigy.

THE QUASI WAR WITH FRANCE

• Origin: France was incensed by the Jay Treaty and broke diplomatic relations in 1796. The XYZ Affair (1798) involved French attempts to bribe American negotiators.
• Legislative Expansion:
  • April 1798: Navy Department established.
  • July 1798: Marine Corps established.
  • July 1798: Money appropriated for $24$ more warships.
• Nature of Conflict: A naval war fought primarily in the West Indies (1798-1800).
• Thomas Truxtun: Commander of the Constellation.
  • February 1799: Defeated the French frigate L'Insurgente near Nevis. The French lost $70$ men compared to $5$ Americans.
  • February 1800: Engaged Vengeance for four hours. The French ship escaped after the Constellation's mainmast toppled, though Vengeance eventually ran aground and was lost.

JEFFERSON’S GUNBOAT PROGRAM

• Strategy: Jefferson supported a "shallow-draft" gunboat fleet for coastal defense rather than a blue-water fleet. This was viewed as more egalitarian and less provocative.
• Specs: Boats were less than $80\text{ feet long}$, $20\text{ feet across}$, and armed with one or two $24$- or $32$-pounder guns.
• Economy: Each gunboat cost approximately $\$12,000$, compared to $\$300,000$ for a frigate.
• Procurement: $257$ were contracted (1804-1808); $177$ were built. Contracts were spread across $11$ of the $17$ states to build political support.
• Failure in Enforcement: They were used to enforce the Embargo Act of 1807, but were too slow to catch smugglers.

THE TRIPOLITAN WAR

• Timeline: 1801–1805.
• The Catalyst: After the Pasha of Tripoli repudiated the 1797 treaty and demanded heavier tribute, Tripoli declared war in May 1801 by chopping down the flagpole at the American consulate.
• Early Command:
  • Commodore Richard Dale (1801): Established a "leaky" blockade.
  • Commodore Richard Morris (1802-1803): Timid leadership. He was eventually jailed in Tunis for the debts of the American consul and dismissed in disgrace.
• Edward Preble: A "man of action" who took command in 1803 with seven ships, including the Constitution. He successfully negotiated with Morocco after a show of force at Tangiers.

THE LOSS AND DESTRUCTION OF THE USS PHILADELPHIA

• The Grounding (October 1803): Captain William Bainbridge ran the Philadelphia onto an uncharted reef while chasing a corsair. He surrendered the ship and its $300$-man crew.
• Decatur’s Raid (February 1804): Stephen Decatur led a group aboard the Intrepid (a captured ketch) to sneak into Tripoli Harbor and burn the Philadelphia so the pirates could not use it. Decatur became a national hero.
• The Fire Ship Disaster (September 4, 1804): Preble attempt to use the Intrepid as a floating bomb in Tripoli harbor. It exploded prematurely, killing the entire volunteer crew.

WILLIAM EATON, TOBIAS LEAR, AND THE CONCLUSION OF THE TRIPOLITAN WAR

• Eaton’s Land Campaign: William Eaton led a force of Greek and Egyptian mercenaries and a few Marines on a $500$-mile desert march to capture the city of Derna. This was intended to replace the Pasha with his brother, Ahmed.
• Diplomatic Solution: Tobias Lear negotiated a treaty while Eaton was winning on land.
• Terms: The U.S. paid $\$60,000$ for the release of the Philadelphia crew and agreed to abandon Derna and Ahmed. The war ended in 1805, though minor harassment continued until 1815.

THE CHESAPEAKE-LEOPARD AFFAIR AND MARITIME SOVEREIGNTY

• The Incident (June 22, 1807): HMS Leopard stopped the USS Chesapeake off the Virginia coast to search for deserters. When Commodore James Barron refused, the Leopard fired three broadsides, killing several and impressing four sailors.
• Result: Barron was court-martialed and relieved of command. The event triggered national outrage.
• Embargoes: Jefferson responded with the Embargo Act of 1807, followed by the Non-Intercourse Act (1809) and Macon's Bill Number 2. None were effective at stopping British or French depredations.

THE BATTLE OF TIPPECANOE AND WESTERN EXPANSION

• Tecumseh’s Federation: Along with his brother, the Prophet, Tecumseh organized tribes at Prophet’s Town (on the Tippecanoe River) to fight white encroachment.
• William Henry Harrison: Governor of the Indiana Territory. During the winter of 1810-1811, he planned a punitive expedition.
• The Battle (November 7, 1811): While Tecumseh was away, the Prophet attacked Harrison's camp. Despite the Prophet's claims that American bullets would bounce off, the warriors were repelled by a charge led by Major Samuel Wells.
• Casualties: Harrison lost over $180$ killed and wounded.
• Consequence: Prophet’s Town was burned, the confederation was broken, and the Northwest was opened for settlement.

THE CREEK WAR AND THE BATTLE OF HORSESHOE BEND

• Division: The Creeks were split into the "Red Sticks" (anti-American) and those friendly to the U.S.
• Fort Mims Massacre (1813): Red Sticks killed over $500$ people at the fort in Alabama.
• Andrew Jackson: Led a force of $5,000$ men, including Tennessee militia. He was a harsh disciplinarian, even executing a man for mutiny.
• The Battle of Horseshoe Bend (March 1814): Jackson attacked a Red Stick encampment on the Tallapoosa River. Nearly $1,000$ Creeks were killed; Jackson lost fewer than $30$.
• Treaty of Fort Jackson: Forced the Creeks to cede nearly $20\text{ million acres}$ of land to the United States and secured Jackson a promotion to Major General.