Roman History: From Republic to Empire

Exam Information

• Exam Structure: 30 multiple-choice questions, 3 short answer questions.
• Key Terms: A significant portion of the questions are tied to key terms, which are super important.
• Timing: The exam will be taken during a single 75-minute class meeting; material will also be covered after the exam.

Roman Governance and Society

Sources from the First Century

• Discussion about divisions within Roman citizens.
• Rome operated with a three-part system, similar to a system of checks and balances, though in ancient Rome, it was more about representing groups in society rather than distinct functions like in modern governments.

Polybius's Analysis of the Roman System

• A Greek historian, Polybius, who lived in Rome, described the Roman system as blending three classical forms of government:
  • Monarchy (Consuls):
  • Consuls held significant power, serving as commanders-in-chief of the armies and chief executive officers over elected magistrates.
  • The powers were considerable, akin to a monarchical figure.
  • Aristocracy (Senate):
  • The Senate acted as a check on the consuls.
  • Senators were not directly elected but comprised individuals who had previously held high elected office.
  • Primarily an advisory body but possessed immense prestige, such that consuls rarely ignored its advice.
  • Held real power over the treasury; they could control funds required by consuls for war supplies (grain, soldiers' pay), effectively cutting off a consul's funding if they disapproved of their actions.
  • Democracy (Citizen Assemblies):
  • The assemblies comprised Roman citizens and wielded substantial power.
  • They elected magistrates, including consuls.
  • Determined sentences for high crimes (death, exile, exoneration), even when the Senate served as a court.
  • Responsible for passing laws, indicating a democratic element in the system.
  • Blending of Interests: Polybius observed this blending as representing different interests: the Senate the elite Romans, and the assemblies the common Romans.

Struggle of the Orders

• A period where plebeians (common citizens) secured a range of political reforms.
• These reforms gave plebeians greater say and influence in the Republic, which had been primarily dominated by the patricians (aristocratic elite).

Roman Expansion and Military Strategy

Early Roman Territory and Alliances

• For about a century, Rome was a small city-state in Central Italy, trading and occasionally fighting with neighboring towns.
  • Early Conflicts: Often involved cattle rustling and taking prisoners of war as slaves.
  • Roman Innovation: When Rome won conflicts, they often formed agreements with defeated cities/towns, making them allies.
  • These allies were then obligated to provide troops to Rome in future wars.
  • Confederation and Rights: Over time, a confederation developed with Rome as the leading city.
  • Members of the confederation gained certain rights, including:
    • Rights to Trade with Rome.
    • Rights of Intermarriage: Intermarriage with Romans was allowed, and any offspring would gain Roman citizenship.
    • Rights of Settlement (migratio): Individuals could settle in Roman territory, and usually after a year, would gain Roman or political citizenship rights. This also applied to Romans settling in allied towns.
  • Latin Wars and Samnite Wars: The relationship with Latin-speaking towns was not always harmonious, leading to conflicts and rebellions.
  • Roman Strategy Post-Victory: Interestingly, when Rome ultimately won these conflicts, they typically extended the very rights to the defeated peoples that those people had initially sought. This integrated them into the growing Roman state and Republic.

Carthage and the Punic Wars

Carthage: A Rival Power

• Location: A city-state in North Africa (modern Tunisia), directly across the straits from Sicily.
• Origins: Originally a colony of the Phoenicians (who invented the alphabet and were maritime traders).
• Independence: Carthage became independent as the Phoenician empire declined and was absorbed by others.
• Significance of Sicily: Sicily was a major grain producer, and control over it was crucial for feeding Rome's growing populace. Rome also viewed Carthaginian expansion into Sicily as a threat to its sphere of influence.

The Punic Wars

• Etymology: The term "Punic" comes from the Latin word Punicus (earlier Poenicus), which refers to the Phoenicians, from whom the Carthaginians were descended.
• These wars were a series of three major conflicts between Rome and Carthage, the two dominant powers of