Notes on Eisenhower and Kennedy Foreign Policy
The End of the Korean Conflict
Escalation and Strategy: President Eisenhower utilized a strategy of escalation to force a truce in the Korean region.
He increased the intensity of bombings in North Korea.
He explicitly threatened the use of nuclear weapons to reach a resolution.
Armistice Declaration: A cease-fire (armistice) was officially declared on July 26, 1953.
This agreement established the territorial border near the parallel.
Factors Leading to the Truce:
China’s military losses had reached critical levels, stacking up against their ability to continue.
Joseph Stalin died on March 5, 1953, which occurred only six weeks after Eisenhower’s inauguration, creating a shift in Soviet leadership and policy.
Dulles and the Doctrine of "Massive Retaliation"
John Foster Dulles’s Philosophy: As Secretary of State, Dulles sought to "roll back" communism globally rather than just containing it.
He viewed the previous policy of "containment" as immoral.
He advocated for the United States to work toward "liberating" what he termed "captive peoples."
Liberation Doctrine Implementation: Eisenhower clarified that the liberation doctrine would not involve the use of military force.
Massive Retaliation: Recognizing that the U.S. could not win a conventional ground war against the Soviet Union or China due to their superior numbers, Eisenhower and Dulles developed the "Massive Retaliation" policy.
This involved the threat of nuclear war to prevent the spread of communism.
Brinksmanship: This policy evolved into "brinksmanship," defined as the willingness to go to the very brink of war without actually entering into a full-scale conflict.
The CIA and Foreign Intervention
Secret Operations: Eisenhower and Dulles utilized the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) secretly to influence global politics, particularly in response to post-WWII anti-colonial independence movements.
Conflict in Iran:
The Iranian Parliament seized control of the oil industry from Britain.
Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh severed diplomatic ties with Britain.
Operation Ajax: The CIA and the British M16 launched this operation to overthrow Mossadegh.
Outcome: Support was provided for the Shah (King), who was increasingly authoritarian but staunchly anti-communist.
Intervention in Guatemala:
The Guatemalan leader (Arbenz) seized American-owned property and industries.
The U.S. administration claimed the government had fallen to international communism.
The CIA aided a coup to overthrow Arbenz.
Long-term Consequences: While these actions prevented governments from joining the Soviet bloc, they destabilized Iran and Guatemala and created long-term resentment toward the U.S. in the Middle East and Central America.
The Beginning of the Vietnam War
Colonial Context: Indochina, comprising Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, was a French colony.
WWII Occupation: Japanese troops occupied Vietnam during World War II.
The Viet Minh: A nationalist resistance movement led by Ho Chi Minh emerged to fight for independence.
At the conclusion of the war with Japan, Ho Chi Minh controlled Northern Vietnam.
He established the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
French-Viet Minh Conflict: The French attempted to restore their colonial regime.
French forces maintained control of the cities, while the Viet Minh controlled the countryside.
U.S. Financial Support: The United States funded nearly of the French military effort during this period.
The Battle of Dien Bien Phu
The French Plan (December 1953): Approximately French soldiers parachuted into Dien Bien Phu, a valley surrounded by mountains in Northern Vietnam.
The objective was to build a base that would lure the Viet Minh guerrillas into the open to be destroyed by superior French firepower.
The Siege (March 1954): The Viet Minh took positions on the ridges overlooking the base, effectively surrounding the French garrison.
American Non-Intervention: The French requested American intervention. Eisenhower refused unless Britain joined the effort; the British refused. Eisenhower deemed intervention "politically impossible."
Surrender: On May 7, 1954, the French forces surrendered to the Viet Minh.
The Geneva Accords and the Partition of Vietnam
The Accords: Signed by France, Britain, the Soviet Union, the People’s Republic of China, and the Viet Minh.
Laos and Cambodia were granted independence.
Vietnam was divided along the parallel.
Governance Post-Partition:
The Viet Minh controlled the North.
The French controlled the South until nationwide elections were to be held in 1956 to reunify the country.
U.S. Stance: The United States and the South Vietnamese government refused to sign the Geneva Accords.
The French appointed Ngo Dinh Diem, a Catholic nationalist, as the leader of South Vietnam.
Eisenhower provided aid to Diem but refused to commit U.S. combat troops.
The Viet Cong and Domino Theory: Diem’s unpopularity led South Vietnamese communist guerrillas (the Viet Cong) to join Ho Chi Minh’s fight.
Eisenhower feared that if Vietnam fell to communism, the rest of Southeast Asia would follow, a concept known as the Domino Theory.
The Election of 1956
Eisenhower’s Candidacy: Despite a heart attack in September 1955 and deteriorating health, Republicans re-nominated Eisenhower and Nixon.
Platform: The platform endorsed "Moderate Republicanism," focused on:
Balanced budgets.
Reduced government intervention in the economy.
An internationalist foreign policy.
Campaign slogan: "Peace, Progress, and Prosperity."
Opposition: Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson for a second time.
Outcome: International crises in Hungary and Suez led Americans to believe they needed Eisenhower’s military expertise. He won in a landslide.
Foreign Crises and Domestic Assessment
Key Global Crises:
The Hungarian Uprising.
The Suez Crisis.
The launch of Sputnik.
The Berlin Crisis.
The U2 Summit incident.
The rise of Castro in Cuba.
Domestic Milestones: Alaska and Hawaii were added as the and states.
Economic and Social Challenges:
The nation suffered its worst economic slump since the Great Depression.
Civil Rights issues challenged the White House. Eisenhower often valued harmony over justice and avoided divisive social issues.
Legacy of Peace: After the Korean truce, not a single American soldier died in combat during Eisenhower's two terms. He balanced the budget while maintaining New Deal programs.
The Farewell Address Warnings:
He identified threats to government integrity from "an immense military establishment and a large arms industry."
He viewed the military as a "vital element" but warned of its potential for "unwarranted influence" (the Military-Industrial Complex).
The Kennedy Presidency: "Camelot"
Image and Style: Kennedy was young, dynamic, and brought a sense of vitality to the White House.
His administration was labeled "Camelot."
He surrounded himself with "the best and brightest."
Quote: "Let us not seek the Republican answer or the Democratic answer, but the right answer. Let us not seek to fix the blame for the past. Let us accept our own responsibility for the future."
Kennedy’s Foreign Policy: Flexible Response
Flexible Response: A shift away from "Massive Retaliation," allowing for a variety of responses to different types of threats.
Development of Special Forces (Green Berets), which were utilized in Vietnam.
Peaceful Expansion of Influence:
The Peace Corps.
The Alliance for Progress.
The Agency for International Development (AID).
The Berlin Wall (1961): Constructed to stop the flow of people from East to West Berlin. Kennedy visited and declared, "Ich bin ein Berliner."
Crisis in Cuba
Bay of Pigs (April 17, 1961): An ill-fated CIA plan inherited from Eisenhower to overthrow Fidel Castro. It was a massive failure.
Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962):
Fearing another U.S. overthrow attempt, Castro sought support from the USSR.
Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev sent medium-range bombers and missiles to Cuba.
U.S. spy planes discovered the sites under construction in October 1962.
Kennedy’s Response: Kennedy demanded removal of the weapons and imposed a naval "quarantine" (blockade) of Cuba.
Quarantine Incident: On Oct 26, 1962, the US destroyer Joseph P. Kennedy boarded and inspected a Lebanese-registered ship under Soviet charter.
Invasion Plans: Detailed military plans involved:
The Airborne securing beaches at Mariel for the Armored division.
The Airborne taking airfields near Havana and San Antonio de los Baños.
Marines landing east of Havana.
Capture of missile sites at San Cristóbal, Sagua la Grande, and Remedios.
Guantánamo Bay troops acting as a diversionary force.
Resolution (October 28): Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles.
U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk famously remarked, "Eyeball to eyeball, they blinked first."
The event was a major Cold War victory for the U.S. and a loss of face for Khrushchev.
Assassination and Transition
The Event: November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas.
Lee Harvey Oswald: The identified assassin, who was subsequently assassinated by Jack Ruby.
The Warren Commission: Investigated the assassination, though many questions remained.
Succession: Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) was sworn in as President.
LBJ retained most of Kennedy’s advisors (referred to as "The Harvards").
He pledged continuity with JFK’s policies and vision.