Rhetoric and the Rhetorical Situation — Key Concepts and Examples

Overview and Learning Approach

• Instructor: Professor Ortiz reviews rhetoric and the rhetorical situation.
• Estimated review time: approximately 15 to 20 minutes.
• Instructional pause cues: pause verbally and with on-screen pause icon when prompted; use those moments to reflect and apply concepts.
• Note-taking guidance: use paper and pen or a split-screen setup to use keyboard; review with a peer if possible; pause to compare notes and discuss concepts.
• Encouragement to pause before starting to reflect on personal understanding of rhetoric.

What is Rhetoric?

• Classical definition (Aristotle): rhetoric is the art of persuasion.
• Modern broad definitions (Oxford and Merriam-Webster): rhetoric is the art of effective or persuasive speech or writing, i.e., overall communication using compositional methods.
• Expanded contemporary view (Nicoletti): rhetoric is a wide array of communicative devices humans use to create effects on each other.
• Practical restatement: rhetoric is the messaging intentionally put forth through language (spoken, written), plus body language and appearance, and other sounds/images.
• Core idea: rhetoric is the art of effective communication using strategies to elicit certain effects from the intended audience.
• Illustrative examples of rhetoric in action: speeches (Martin Luther King Jr.), persuasive letters (Susan B. Anthony), advertisements, and even architecture.
• Broader contexts for rhetoric include hostile architecture (e.g., spikes, rails, studs to deter loitering) and social media rhetoric (text, images, audio, video conveying messages).

The Rhetorical Situation and the Triangle

• Central model: basic rhetorical triangle consists of the communicator (source), the message, and the audience.
• The communicator: needs evaluation of background, beliefs, and intentions as they color the message.
• The audience: who is the intended audience; who is left out; the message targets specific recipients.
• Context: the larger environment surrounding the text that helps give it meaning.
• The extended rhetorical situation adds factors beyond the basic triangle that influence how the message is created and delivered.

External and Internal Contexts

• External factors: social, political, cultural surroundings that shape the message.
• Internal factors: personal motives, biases, experiences of the communicator.
• Context is sometimes shown as a grayed-out “context” behind the basic triangle to indicate its pervasive influence.

Exigence, Purpose, and Kairos

• Exigence: urgency or the reason you feel compelled to produce the message; what is compelling you to communicate now.
• Purpose: what you aim to achieve with the message (inform, persuade, etc.).
• Relationship between exigence and purpose: the why behind creating the message.
• Kairos: opportune moment or timing for delivering the message; timing should align with urgency (exigence) and context.
• Examples of kairos:
  • Publishing on Bell Hooks’ teachings around an anniversary to align with public interest and deadlines.
  • Workplace example: asking for a raise when there are no upcoming budget cuts; timing matters relative to organizational context.
• Kairos emphasizes waiting for the right moment to maximize impact.

Medium, Circulation, Modality, and Genre

• Medium: the platform or channel used to deliver the message (print articles, newspapers, radio/TV, social media).
• Circulation: how the message is distributed (posters on campus, social media posts, mail flyers).
• Modality: the method or sensory mode of delivery (oral, written, visual, audio, etc.); often multiple modes are used simultaneously.
• Genre: the category or type of content, with conventions and expectations that shape how information is presented.
  • Examples: podcasts (audio/visual requirements), newspapers (digital with hyperlinks and space constraints).
  • Article types: journal articles vs newspaper/magazine articles have different language density and audience expectations (scholars vs general readers).
• Interplay among medium, circulation, modality, and genre shapes how information is framed and received.

Tone and the Expanded Context

• Tone: the attitude or stance of the communicator, which significantly affects how the message is heard.
• Tone is not fully captured by the basic rhetorical triangle and requires context to be understood.
• How tone is perceived:
  • Example with a child asking for ice cream: tone changes the perceived attitude (e.g., confrontational vs. pleading) even if the words are similar.
  • Context includes body language, punctuation, and descriptive language.
• The importance of context in shaping tone and interpretation.

Kairos in Depth

• Kairos vs. Exigence:
  • Exigence is the urgency driving the message.
  • Kairos is about the timing of delivering that message for maximum effect.
• Examples to illustrate kairos:
  • Publishing Bell Hooks’ teachings around the anniversary, coordinating with deadlines.
  • In a job context: waiting for a better moment when the department isn’t facing budget cuts.
• The combined effect of exigence and kairos influences the likelihood that the audience will receive and act on the message.

Types of Purpose in Communication

• Inform: provide information (e.g., an email or poster with meeting details: time, location, agenda).
• Persuade: influence how others think or what they do (e.g., voting campaigns encouraging turnout).
• Entertain: provide aesthetic or literary value (e.g., a comedian’s routine).
• Scholarly inquiry / Educate: advance knowledge and contribute to further questions (e.g., textbooks, journal articles).
• Multiple or overlapping purposes are common: primary vs. secondary purposes may coexist within a single message.

The Rhetorical Appeals: Ethos, Logos, Pathos

• Ethos (ethical appeal):
  • Related to audience fairness and shared values.
  • Establishes credibility and authority of the communicator.
  • Can reveal common ground to show where sides agree.
• Logos (logical appeal):
  • Appeals to reason and evidence: statistics, testimonials, data, logical arguments.
• Pathos (emotional appeal):
  • Appeals to audience emotions to motivate action or belief.
• Practical use: speakers mix ethos, logos, and pathos to persuade; the balance depends on context and audience.

Conducting Rhetorical Analysis

• Focus areas for analysis:
  • The communicator’s background, beliefs, and intentions.
  • The audience being addressed and any intended exclusions.
  • The language, imagery, and sounds used to create effects.
  • The role of tone, context, and kairos in shaping interpretation.
• Rhetoric as purposeful communication: using available tools (language, visuals, sounds) to create effects on audiences.
• The idea of becoming rhetorical: developing ongoing awareness of how communication works in varied contexts.

Examples and Applications Mentioned

• Martin Luther King Jr.: a lasting example of a persuasive speech for equality and civil rights.
• Susan B. Anthony: a persuasive letter to the government as a suffrage activism example.
• Advertising: boards, ads, and campaigns illustrating rhetorical strategies.
• Architecture: hostile design and deterrence features as non-verbal rhetorical devices.
• Social media: text, images, audio, and video shaping discourse and persuasion online.

Final Reflections and Next Steps

• Encourage students to reflect on questions about rhetorical situations, aims, and audience reach.
• Invite lingering questions to be brought to class discussions.
• Preview: next instructional video will cover rhetorical strategies.
• Emphasize continual awareness of rhetoric in writing and everyday communication.

Quick Reference: Key Terms and Concepts

• Rhetoric: the art of effective communication and persuasion through language, visuals, and other modalities.
• Rhetorical triangle: communicator, message, audience (core elements of the basic model).
• Context: everything surrounding the text that gives it meaning.
• Exigence: urgency driving the message.
• Kairos: opportune timing for delivering the message.
• Medium, Circulation, Modality, Genre: channels, distribution methods, modes, and content types that shape communication.
• Tone: attitude conveyed by the communicator.
• Ethos: ethical appeal; credibility and shared values.
• Logos: logical appeal; evidence and reason.
• Pathos: emotional appeal; audience feelings and motivation.
• Extended rhetorical situation: adds contextual factors beyond the basic triangle.