China Since Mao: From Economic Miracle to Authoritarian Power

Administrative Reminders regarding the Final Exam

• Final Exam Details: The final exam for this course is scheduled for December 21st. The instructor noted that this is exactly $10$ days from the date of the lecture. Students are urged to ensure their work is completed and submitted by that date.

• Office Hours and Contact Information:

  • Online Office Hours: The instructor maintains online office hours but does not typically sit in a Zoom room. Students wishing to meet during this time must send an email to schedule an appointment.

  • Physical Office Hours: The instructor is present on campus in the physical office on Tuesdays and Thursdays. The syllabus contains the specific times for these sessions.

  • Location: The physical office is located in BS $01:43$.

  • Time Slots: Scheduled from $10:00$ to $10:30$ on Tuesdays and Thursdays.

Transitions and Themes in Post-Mao China

• Timeline and Scope: The lecture covers the period from the death of Mao Zedong in $1976$ through the early $2010s$.

• Identity Shift: Mao was central to the identity of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the People’s Republic of China (PRC). His death made structural and ideological changes inevitable.

• Shift in Priorities: The Communist Party transitioned from prioritizing "class struggle" to prioritizing "economic growth."

• Economic Trajectory: During this era, China experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, reaching rates of $10\%$ or higher in some years, making it the fastest-growing economy in the world at the time.

• Massive Migration: This period saw one of the largest internal migrations in human history, characterized by millions of people moving from the rural countryside to major urban centers.

• Consequences of Growth: While millions were lifted out of poverty, the benefits were unevenly distributed:

  • Urban residents fared better than rural compatriots.

  • Coastal provinces saw more opportunities than inland regions.

  • Younger generations were better positioned to capitalize on economic shifts than the elderly.

• The Future Direction of China: The nation has faced a pull between two directions for the last two decades:

  • Integration into the global capitalist economy and global society.

  • A return to fundamentalist communist ideology, a trend currently exemplified by President Xi Jinping.

The Power Struggle and Rise of Deng Xiaoping

• Post-Mao Vacuum ($1976$): Mao’s death triggered a struggle between two primary factions:

  • Hua Guofeng: Mao’s designated successor.

  • Jiang Qing: Mao’s wife and a primary driver behind the Cultural Revolution. She led a faction known as the "Gang of Four" (consisting of Jiang Qing and three close advisers: Wang Hongwen, Zhang Chunqiao, and Yao Wenyuan).

• Outcome of the Struggle: Hua Guofeng successfully outmaneuvered the Gang of Four. Anti-party rhetoric on big-character posters advocated for the "decisive throwing out" of the "Wang-Zhang-Jiang-Yao anti-party clique." Jiang Qing was arrested and eventually committed suicide in $1991$.

• The Ascent of Deng Xiaoping: Deng Xiaoping eventually turned the party against Hua Guofeng. Deng argued that while Hua was useful for removing the Gang of Four, he was not the right leader for China’s future.

• Profile of Deng Xiaoping:

  • Possessed a long communist pedigree: studied in France, participated in the Long March, and fought in the war against Japan.

  • Became a senior CCP member in the $1950s$.

  • Was ousted from power twice during the Cultural Revolution, imprisoned, and sent to work in a rural factory.

  • Represented the "pragmatic bureaucratic class" as opposed to the "ideological revolutionary class."

• Ideological Stance: Deng was famously pragmatic, stating, "It doesn’t matter what color the cat is as long as it catches mice." He critiqued Maoist policies, stating that the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were "wasted years" and that "poverty is not socialism."

Reforms and the Democracy Wall

• Educational Reform: Deng sought to rectify the educational deficit caused by the Cultural Revolution, which he claimed had created an entire generation of "mental cripples."

  • In the late $1970s$, only $14\%$ of CCP members had a high school degree and only $4\%$ had college degrees.

  • Approximately $15,000,000$ party members were sent back to school.

• Administrative Reform: Retirement ages were imposed on senior officials to improve party efficiency and consolidate Deng’s control.

• The Democracy Wall Movement (November $1978$): Initially encouraged by Deng to discredit his rival Hua Guofeng.

  • Wei Jingsheng: A prominent activist who posted critiques of the government, including his own address, on a wall in Beijing.

  • Suppression: Once Deng solidified his power, he suppressed the movement and arrested activists.

• Market Liberalization: Deng moved China toward a market economy by selling state assets to private companies and allowing limited private ownership. This led to massive anti-corruption campaigns (often used to purge rivals):

  • $1983$: $40,000$ members expelled from the party.

  • $1987$: Over $100,000$ members expelled.

The Economic Miracle and Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

• Rural Reform: The "People’s Communes" were dismantled. Farmers were allowed to rent land and sell surplus crops at market for personal profit.

  • Sideline Activities: Farmers began raising livestock (pigs, chickens), performing tractor repairs, and producing refined foods like tofu.

• Urban Reform and SEZs: Designed to attract foreign investment. Foreign companies could jointly invest with the government, benefiting from low-wage Chinese labor.

  • Locations: Typically near major cities (e.g., Shenzhen near Hong Kong; Pudong across from Shanghai).

• Export Dominance: China became a global leader in multiple sectors:

  • $1996$: Number one producer of garments (billions of shirts annually).

  • $1998$: World leader in shoe production.

  • $2004$: Number one producer of computers.

  • $2006$: Number one producer of seafood.

• The Shrinking Public Sector: State factories and mines struggled to compete with private ventures. This led to the neglect of retirees who relied on state pensions that local governments could no longer afford.

Socio-Economic Consequences and Migration

• Living Conditions: Workers often endured squalid conditions for the sake of higher wages.

• The Kowloon Walled City: A famous example of extreme urban density and lawlessness in Hong Kong.

  • Originally a Qing government office kept as a concession during the Opium Wars.

  • Became a lawless zone where neither the British nor the PRC exercised authority.

  • Known for its high density, leaking pipes (necessitating umbrellas indoors), and the highest per capita density of unlicensed dentists.

  • Demolished by the British government before the $1997$ handover.

• Migration Statistics:

  • $1992$: $100,000,000$ people working or looking for work away from home.

  • $2010$: $230,000,000$ migrant workers in China.

• Rural Stagnation: Young people left the countryside, leaving only the elderly behind.

  • In Shanxi province, $1/3$ of the population lived in poverty.

  • Adult female literacy in Shanxi was only $20\%$ (meaning $80\%$ were illiterate).

Environmental Impact and Material Progress

• Environmental Disregard: Rapid development came at a huge environmental cost, continuing a trend from the Mao era (e.g., the "Smash the Sparrows" campaign of $1958$, which caused a locust plague).

• Pollution Trends: Deforestation, air pollution, and water pollution were accepted as the price of progress.

  • $75\%$ of China’s energy historically came from coal.

  • $1998$ WHO Report: Seven of the world’s $10$ most polluted cities were in China.

  • Nut Brother: In $2015$, an activist vacuumed Beijing air for $100$ days and produced a solid brick of pollutants.

• Consumer Material Growth:

  • Refrigerators in Beijing: Increased from $62\%$ ($1986$) to $98\%$ ($1995$) of households.

  • Cell Phones: Increased from $26,000,000$ ($2000$) to $900,000,000$ ($2011$).

  • Private Cars: $0$ in $1978$, $1,000,000$ in $1993$, and $13,000,000$ in $2007$.

Cultural Shifts and International Integration

• Consumer Culture: Emerged in the $1990s$ via television, cassettes, and movies.

• Education Resurgence: The college entrance exam was reinstated in $1977$.

• International Engagement:

  • $2001$: $63,000$ Chinese students in the US.

  • $2021$: $317,000$ Chinese students in the US.

• Arts and Media:

  • Wounded Literature: A genre where authors condemned the Cultural Revolution and Great Leap Forward. Example: The Three-Body Problem ($2008$) by Liu Cixin.

  • Western Movies: Popularity of US superhero films like The Avengers. However, censorship remains (e.g., Spider-Man: No Way Home was banned for refusing to cut the Statue of Liberty scene).

  • Television: Shows like Snail House or Dwelling Narrowness explored real-estate problems. Reality dating shows like If You are the One became hits.

  • Korean Wave: Korean dramas were popular until a $2017$ ban due to South Korea deploying a US missile system.

Family Life, Gender, and the One-Child Policy

• Traditional Structure: Historically based on patrilineal lines and ancestor worship. Communist ideology officially promoted gender equality, but discrimination persists.

• Gender Disparity:

  • CCP membership is $77\%$ male.

  • The "double burden": Women are expected to work and then handle all household chores (cooking, cleaning, childcare).

• The One-Child Policy ($1980$): Introduced to prevent a "population bomb."

  • Context: Life expectancy rose from $40$ ($1953$) to $60$ ($1968$) to $75$ ($2010$).

  • Enforcement: Required permission from work units. Birth planning workers monitored menstrual cycles. Fines for second children often equaled several years of salary.

  • Exceptions: Enforcement was less stringent in rural areas.

• Tragic Consequences:

  • Skewed sex ratio: $111$ men for every $100$ women by $2020$.

  • Rise in female abortion, abandonment, and infanticide due to the preference for male heirs.

  • The "$4-2-1$ Problem": One child supporting two parents and four grandparents.

  • "Little Emperors": Spoiled only children.

Political Challenges: Tiananmen and Hong Kong

• Tiananmen Square Protest ($1989$):

  • Began with the funeral of Hu Yaobang. Students demanded asset disclosure, an end to party privilege, and democratic reforms.

  • Gorbachev Visit: International media attention emboldened protesters. The "Goddess of Democracy" (paper-mâché) was constructed.

  • The Crackdown: After Gorbachev left, the PLA was sent in. Local units refused to fire, so rural units were brought in. On the night of June 3rd-4th, the army launched a brutal attack with tanks and machine guns.

  • Tank Man (June 5): A mysterious man stood in front of a column of tanks. His identity and fate remain unknown.

• Hong Kong Protests ($2019$):

  • Triggered by the Extradition Bill (allowing trials in Mainland China).

  • Five Demands: 1. Protests not riots; 2. Amnesty for protesters; 3. Justice for police brutality; 4. Universal suffrage; 5. Withdrawal of the bill.

  • Outcome: The CCP introduced strict security laws in $2020$, resulting in mass arrests and the erasure of protest visibility.

Contemporary Demographics and Global Relations

• Zero-COVID Policy: Under Xi Jinping, China practiced "Dynamic Zero-COVID," involving draconian lockdowns (e.g., Shanghai in March $2022$). Drone dogs were used to broadcast instructions to empty streets.

• Taiwan Relations: Taiwan was a Japanese colony until $1945$. Chiang Kai-shek fled there in $1949$.

  • US Policy: "Normalization" (Nixon, $1970s$) led to the US recognizing only one China, while maintaining "strategic ambiguity" regarding the military defense of Taiwan.

  • Isolation: The CCP seeks to isolate Taiwan (e.g., blocking it from WHO statistics).

• Global Soft Power: China grew to have the largest economy in the world by $2011$.

  • International Membership: Joined World Bank ($1980$), IMF, WTO ($2001$).

  • Belt and Road Initiative: A massive infrastructure and loan program to expand global influence and rival US power.

• The New Cold War: Commentators suggest the hope that China would liberalize as it grew wealthy has proven false; the CCP remains focused on authoritarian control.

Conclusion and Course Wrap-Up

• Final Tasks: Students must complete short essays and the final exam.

• Office Procedures: Tuesday/Thursday BS $01:43$ for in-person consultations.