Exhaustive Review Guide for Human Geography Fundamentals and Geographic Study
Unit 1: Thinking Geographically
Introduction to Maps * Types of Maps * Topographic: Maps that show the physical features of the land, including elevation using contour lines. * Choropleth: Maps that use different shades or colors to represent various data values (e.g., levels of population or income) across predefined areas like states or countries. * Graduated Symbol: Maps that use symbols of different sizes to represent data values (e.g., larger circles for higher oil consumption). * Political: Maps that show human-created boundaries such as countries, states, and cities. * Cartogram: Maps that distort the size and shape of areas to represent a specific variable (e.g., world population). * Dot-density: Maps that use dots to represent the presence or quantity of a feature (e.g., people). * Physical: Maps that focus on natural features like mountains, rivers, and deserts.
Geographic Data and its Power * Geographic Information System (GIS): Computer systems designed to store, analyze, and display information from multiple digital maps or geospatial data sets. * Remote Sensing: A method of gathering information from satellites orbiting the Earth; involves the use of cameras or other sensors mounted on aircraft or satellites to collect digital images or video of the Earth's surface. * Landscape Analysis: The task of defining and describing landscapes to understand human and environmental interactions. * Smartphone/Computer Apps: Location-aware applications that gather, store, and use locational data from computers or personal devices. * Aerial Photography: Professional images captured from planes or drones within the atmosphere. * Spatial Data: All information that can be tied to specific locations on Earth. * Global Positioning System (GPS): Receivers on the Earth's surface that use the locations of multiple satellites to determine and record a receiver's exact location.
Spatial Concepts and Human-Environmental Interactions * Built-environment: The human-made surroundings, including roads, bridges, and buildings, designed to support human activity and often promote sustainability. * Sense of Place: The unique architecture and community events of a district that create a strong emotional connection for residents and visitors. * Renewable Energy: Sources like solar and wind power that are crucial for reducing carbon footprints. * Environmental Determinism: The theory that the physical environment, particularly climate and terrain, shapes human societies and cultural development. * Distance Decay: The principle that the influence of a central point (like a business district) diminishes as distance from the center increases. * Location: For example, New York City is located at and . * Non-renewable Resources: Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas that take millions of years to form and are depleted faster than they are replenished. * Possibilism: The theory that while the environment sets constraints, human culture and innovation can overcome limitations to shape development. * Site: The specific physical characteristics of a location (e.g., elevation above flood-prone areas, proximity to routes). * Spatial Interaction: The exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices between distant regions, facilitated by transportation technology. * Situation: The location of a place relative to other places (e.g., Washington DC's location on the Potomac River surrounded by Virginia and Maryland). * Toponym: A place name, such as 'New York,' which reflects historical connections to 'York' in England.
Scales of Analysis * Global: Shows the entire world (e.g., Earth at night, world population). * World Regional: Shows multiple countries (e.g., North America, South Asia). * National: Shows one country (e.g., United States, Thailand). * Regional: Shows a portion within a country (e.g., The Midwest, Eastern China, Tennessee). * Local: Shows a province, state, city, or neighborhood (e.g., Moscow).
Types of Regions * Formal: Areas with shared characteristics like the Sahara Desert, Scandinavia, or regions sharing a common language. * Functional: Areas organized around a focal point, such as a pizza delivery area, an airport's connection network, or a TV broadcast area. * Vernacular (Perceptual): Areas defined by people's feelings and perceptions rather than objective data, such as 'Upstate New York,' 'Silicon Valley,' or the 'DMV' ().
World Regions: A Closer Look * 1. Latin America * 2. Polynesia * 3. Brazil * 4. United States * 5. Canada * 6. Caribbean * 7. Western Europe * 8. Eastern Europe * 9. Siberia * 10. East Asia * 11. South Asia * 12. Southeast Asia * 13. Australia * 14. Micronesia * 15. Melanesia * 16. Southern Africa * 17. East Africa * 18. Central Africa * 19. West Africa * 20. North Africa * 21. Middle East * 22. Central Asia
Unit 2: Population and Migration
Population Distribution and Density * Population Distribution: The pattern of human settlement across the Earth; highlights crowded or empty places. * Population Density: Average population per square mile or kilometer (). * Arithmetic Density: Calculated by dividing a region's total population by its total area. * Physiological Density: Population divided by the amount of arable land (land suitable for growing). * Agricultural Density: The number of farmers divided by the arable land; shows the effectiveness of an area's farmers. * Overpopulation: Occurs when a region has more people than it can support. * Carrying Capacity: The maximum number of people a region can support without damaging the environment. Historically, city sites were chosen based on their ability to support large populations.
Population Pyramids * Structure: Analyzed by age ranges (usually in intervals of years), sex (males on left, females on right), and status (young dependents , economically active , and older dependents ). * Stable Pyramids: Indicate a developed country with decent healthcare and stable government (e.g., United States). * Rapid Growth Pyramids: Indicate a developing country with poor healthcare and short life expectancy (e.g., Nigeria). * Declining Pyramids: Indicate a developed country with good healthcare but a declining birthrate (e.g., Germany, Japan). * Impact of War: Pyramids show fewer men in the age range and potential birth deficits. * Baby Boom: A sudden spike in birth rates causing a large increase in specific age cohorts. * Baby Bust: Lower birth rates following a boom, causing a dramatic decrease in younger cohorts. * Echo: A repeat baby boom where a spike occurs in the age range of the children of the original boomers.
Population Dynamics * Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Number of live births per year per people. * Crude Death Rate (CDR): Number of deaths per year per people. * Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average number of children born to women in their childbearing years (ages to ). * Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): Percentage at which a country's population grows or declines (excluding migration).
Demographic Transition Model (DTM) * Stage 1 (High Stationary): High but fluctuating birth and death rates due to disease and manual labor. Economies are subsistence-based (hunting/gathering). * Stage 2 (Early Expanding): High birth rates, rapidly declining death rates due to improved healthcare. (e.g., Mali, South Sudan). * Stage 3 (Late Expanding): Declining birth rates due to urbanization; declining death rates but slower than Stage 2. (e.g., Mexico, Turkey, Indonesia). * Stage 4 (Low Stationary): Low birth and death rates, leading to a stable population. Economies are highly developed and urbanized. (e.g., United States, China). * Stage 5 (Declining): Birth rate falls below death rate; death rate slightly increases as population ages. (e.g., Japan, Germany).
Population Theories and Policies * Malthusian Theory: Food production increases steadily, but population grows exponentially, eventually leading to overpopulation and starvation. * Boserup Theory: Argues that more people provide more hands for work; food production and population increase together. * Neo-Malthusian Theory: Argues Malthus was correct but shifts focus to the depletion of non-renewable resources. * Antinatalist Policy: Programs to decrease births (e.g., China's One Child Policy). * Pronatalist Policy: Programs to increase fertility (e.g., France, Sweden, Japan) often in response to an aging population.
Migration Concepts * Voluntary Migration: Movement made by choice. * Immigrant: A person who migrates across an international border intending to stay permanently. * Emigrate: To leave a location. * Step Migration: Reaching a destination through a series of smaller moves. * Counter Migration: Opposite movement generated by a migration flow. * Forced Migration: Involuntary movement. * Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): Moving to another part of the same country due to political or environmental factors. * Refugees: Moving to another country due to political or environmental factors. * Asylum: Protection granted to an immigrant having a legitimate fear of harm or death. * Guest-worker Policies: Regulate temporary workers entering for specific industries. * Xenophobia: Strong dislike of a specific culture. * Ethnic Enclaves: Neighborhoods primarily filled with people of the same ethnic group. * Push Factors: War, famine, unstable government/economy, poverty, environmental issues, poor healthcare/education. * Pull Factors: Job opportunities, asylum, political stability, better living conditions, cultural diversity, better healthcare/education.
Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes
Cultural Fundamentals * Cultural Hearth: The area where a unique culture or trait begins. * Diffusion: The spread of people, ideas, and culture. * Traditional Culture: Long-held beliefs, values, and practices passed down through generations. * Folk Culture: Beliefs and practices of a small, homogeneous group of people. * Pop Culture: Cultural traits that spread quickly over a large area. * Cultural Landscape: Physical artifacts created by humans (the built environment) that reflect unique architecture and cultural values (e.g., bilingual signage).
Major World Religions * Buddhism: followers; Founder: The Buddha; Beliefs: Achieving Nirvana by eliminating worldly attachment through the Noble Eightfold Path. * Christianity: followers; Founder: Jesus Christ; Book: Bible; Beliefs: One God; Jesus is the Son of God; salvation through his death and resurrection. * Hinduism: followers; No single founder; Books: Vedas, Puranas; Beliefs: Soul is continually reborn; happiness reached after freeing oneself from earthly desires. * Islam: followers; Founder: Muhammad; Book: Qur'an; Beliefs: Five Pillars (Faith, Prayer, Charity/Almsgiving, Fasting during Ramadan, Pilgrimage to Mecca). * Judaism: followers; Founder: Abraham; Book: Hebrew Bible/Torah; Beliefs: One God (Yahweh); serving God through Torah teachings. * Confucianism: followers; Founder: Confucius; Books: Analects, Five Classics; Beliefs: Social order based on family relationships and respect for elders.
United States Religious Regions * Lutherans: Primarily in the Midwest. * Mormons: Primarily in Utah. * Congregationalists: Primarily in New England. * Roman Catholics: Northeast and Southwest. * Baptists and Methodists: Southeast. * Jews, Muslims, and Hindus: Concentrated in Urban areas.
Cultural Forces * Centripetal Forces: Factors that unify people, such as common language, religion, shared heritage, and ethnic tolerance. * Centrifugal Forces: Factors that divide people, such as linguistic or religious differences, ethnic conflict, racism, or dictatorial leadership. * Ethnocentrism: Believing one's culture is superior to others. * Cultural Appropriation: Adopting traits or icons of another culture.
Types of Diffusion * Stimulus: An underlying idea is adopted but modified (e.g., McDonald's in India having no beef). * Contagious: Trait spreads continuously outward through contact. * Reverse Hierarchical: Trait diffuses from lower status groups to higher status (e.g., street fashion). * Relocation: Spread by people who migrate and carry traits with them. * Hierarchical: Spread from centers of wealth, influence, or interconnected places. * Expansion: Spread through exchange without migration.
Unit 4: Political Patterns and Processes
Political Geography Introduction * Nation-state: A nation fulfilling state qualifications (e.g., Japan, Iceland). * Multi-national State: A country containing more than one nation (e.g., Canada). * Autonomous Region: Defined area within a state with high self-government. * Semi-autonomous Region: A state with some degree of, but not complete, self-rule (e.g., Native Americans). * Stateless Nation: A cultural group with no political entity (e.g., Palestine, Kurds, Navajo). * Multi-state Nation: A nation stretching across the borders of multiple states (e.g., Korea).
Political Processes and Boundaries * Berlin Conference: European leaders drew African boundaries ignoring cultures, leading to modern civil wars/genocide. * Choke Point: A place of physical congestion between regions, such as the Strait of Hormuz. * Boundary Types: * Subsequent: Created while the cultural landscape evolves. * Defined: Established by legal documents/treaties. * Militarized: Heavily guarded boundaries. * UNCLOS: Defining four zones of the sea (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea). * Antecedent: Preceded the development of the cultural landscape. * Superimposed: Drawn by outside powers, ignoring cultural patterns. * Relic: An abandoned boundary that still exists on the landscape (e.g., Berlin Wall).
Governance and Supranationalism * Federal States: Unites separate entities into a system where they maintain some sovereignty (e.g., USA). * Unitary States: Governing power held primarily by the national government (e.g., France, Japan). * Supranational Organizations: * ASEAN: Southeast Asian trade and economic growth. * African Union: Focuses on peace and cooperation in Africa. * WTO: Guidelines for international trade. * UN: Post-WWII; promotes peace and human rights. * EU: states; single-market free-trade zone. * OPEC: Coordinates petroleum policies for market stability. * NATO: members providing mutual defense aid.
Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land Use
Agricultural Practices * Subsistence vs. Commercial: Subsistence is for the family; Commercial is for profit. * Intensive vs. Extensive: Intensive requires high input (time, money) for high yields; Extensive uses lower inputs and results in lower yields. * Key Regions: * Shifting Cultivation: Tropical climates (Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa). * Pastoral Nomadism: Drylands (North Africa, Southwest Asia). * Mediterranean: Warm mid-latitude (Southern Europe, Northern Africa). * Grain: Cold mid-latitude (North Central US, East Europe).
Agricultural Revolutions * Neolithic (First): Origin of farming and plant/animal domestication; led to permanent river settlements in the Fertile Crescent. * Second Agricultural Revolution: Coincided with the Industrial Revolution. * Iron/Steel Plow (): Reduced human labor and broke harder soil. * Mechanized Seed Drilling ( Century): Increased yield per acre. * McCormick Reaper (): Increased harvest speed. * Green Revolution (Mid- Century): Led by Dr. Norman Borlaug; focused on seed hybridization and high-yield varieties, though it increased dependency on chemical fertilizers.
Von Thünen Model * Rings relative to the Market Town: , , , , . * Bid-Rent Theory: Land cost and use are determined by distance from the city.
Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land Use
Urban Classifications * Megacity: Population > 10\text{ million}. * Metacity: Population > 20\text{ million} or interconnected urban systems. * World Cities: Cities like New York or London that exert global influence. * Edge City: Large nodes of economic activity on the periphery of large cities. * Megalopolis: A chain of connected cities (e.g., BosWash corridor).
Urban Distribution Theories * Rank-size Rule: The largest city is the size of the largest city. * Primate City: The largest city is more than twice as large as the next largest. * Gravity Model: Larger and closer places interact more than smaller or farther places.
Unit 7: Industrialization and Economic Development
Economic Sectors * Primary: Resource extraction (Farming, mining). * Secondary: Manufacturing and construction. * Tertiary: Service industry (Sales, housekeepers). * Quaternary: Information handling (Software developers, data scientists). * Quinary: High-level decision making (CEOs, Government leaders).
Development Measures * Human Development Index (HDI): Combines GNI per capita, life expectancy, and education years. * Gender Inequality Index (GII): Measures gender disparities.
Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth * (Subsistence farming). * (Improving infrastructure/farming). * (Industrialization starts). * (Technology diffuses widely). * (Spending on non-essential goods).