Year 9 History Notes: Making a Better World? - An Overview
Making a Better World?: An Overview
Depth Study 1 Options:
Students choose one of the following:
The Industrial Revolution (Chapter 1)
Movement of Peoples (Chapter 2)
Progressive Ideas and Movements: Capitalism (Chapter 3)
Overview of 1750-1918 Developments:
Key events and changes during this period had a direct impact on the world today.
Key Developments:
The Industrial Revolution
Movement of peoples
Progressive ideas and movements
The Industrial Revolution:
Period of profound change from the 1750s to the early 1900s.
New methods in farming, manufacturing, communication, and transport.
Impact went beyond manufacturing, altering how people worked, lived, and where they lived.
Society itself was transformed.
Movement of Peoples:
Linked to the Industrial Revolution.
Includes the transatlantic slave trade, migration to the Americas, and transportation of convicts to Australia.
Progressive Ideas and Political Movements:
Linked to economic and social changes.
Led to the French and American revolutions.
Development of democratic systems of government.
Agricultural Revolution:
Began in the mid-17th century and continued through the 19th century.
Included fencing off small areas of land (enclosures) to create larger private farms.
Benefited wealthy people who were granted these lands for their private use and profit.
Led to more efficient farming but displaced people who relied on the land for their daily needs.
Consequences of Agricultural Innovations:
Improved livestock and crop yields.
Farm workers were forced from their homes, leading to migration from rural villages to towns and cities.
Created a new class of workers who provided labor for factories and mills.
Key Industries Transformed:
Iron, coal, cotton, and wool production.
Inventions and new practices in one industry affected others.
Development of coal-powered steam engines led to increased demand for coal.
Expansion of coal mines required better steam engines for pumping machines.
Improved steam engines powered spinning and weaving machines, leading to the factory system.
Steam engines also powered new modes of transport, including trains and ships, and were later used to generate electricity.
Living and Working Conditions during the Industrial Revolution:
Harsh and demanding conditions for British factory and mine workers.
Men, women, and children worked in unsafe conditions for long hours (up to 16 hours a day, six days a week).
Demand for reforms to regulate working conditions grew, particularly for child labor.
Legislation regulated minimum employment age, wages, and the length of the working week.
By the 1870s:
No child under 10 could be employed in factories.
Education was compulsory for children under 10.
The working day was limited to 10 hours.
Women, girls, and boys under 12 could no longer be employed underground in coal mines.
Many workers lived in slum areas close to factories with overcrowded conditions and no access to fresh water or proper sewerage.
Consequences included regular outbreaks of disease, a short life expectancy (29 years in Liverpool in 1865), and a high infant mortality rate.
Later Improvements:
Slums were torn down and replaced by new urban settlements with heating, running water, and sewerage systems.
Agricultural innovations made food more plentiful and cheaper.
Mass-produced goods became more affordable.
Improved public transport allowed workers to live away from factories in developing suburbs.
Street lighting transformed city life at night, encouraging entertainment at theatres and music halls.
Impact of the Industrial Revolution in Britain:
Transformed Britain's economy, becoming the world's leading economic and industrial power.
Population quadrupled from approximately million in 1750 to over million in 1850 due to improved living standards and decreased death rates.
Shift from an agricultural society to an urban society.
Emergence of a 'middle class' (bankers, shopkeepers, teachers).
Development of suburbs surrounding cities.
Changes in Britain's Society:
1750: 80% of people worked on farms and lived in rural villages, with small-scale manufacturing in homes and workshops. Farm work was done through physical efforts and waterwheels.
1880: 80% of the population lived in towns and industrial cities. Workers lived close to factory sites in appalling conditions. Steam-powered machinery led to mass production in factories. Skilled labor was less required; instead, men, women, and children kept machines running continuously.
Social Divisions and Thinkers:
Divisions between social classes became more obvious.
Writers were appalled by the plight of the working poor.
Social thinkers like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels gained followers among workers.
Ideas such as socialism and communism developed.
Formation of workers' groups, such as trade unions, and demand for political reform from groups like the Chartists.
The Expansion of European Empires:
Closely linked to the Industrial Revolution.
Raw materials and income from overseas colonies were vital.
From the late 16th century, European powers (Britain, France, Spain, Portugal) sought to control new territories.
Colonies provided wealth and power, and Britain's industries needed raw materials (timber, cotton, ores).
Colonies in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific provided resources and new markets.
European Powers' Control of Global Land Mass:
Increased from 35% in 1800 to 67% in the 1870s and over 80% by 1900 (according to economic historian Paul Kennedy).
Steam engine, mass production of iron and steel, and machine-made tools gave economic and military advantages.
Example of Western Power:
The Battle of Omdurman in Sudan (2 September 1898) where 8000 British troops crushed a 50000-strong opposition force, killing 10000 with minimal British losses due to superior weaponry.
The Movement of Peoples (1750-1920):
World population increased dramatically, from 790 million to 1.86 billion.
Distribution of people changed as people moved to new lands.
Three Main Reasons for Movement:
Forced transportation of slaves from Africa to the Americas for free labor.
Forced transportation of convicts to distant colonies by Britain and other European countries.
Free movement of settlers seeking better opportunities and wealth (e.g., gold rushes).
Population Changes:
North America's population rose from 0.3% of the world's population in 1750 to 5% in 1900.
The Pacific region grew from 2 million to 6 million in the same period due to Britain's colonies in Australia and New Zealand.
Forced Transportation of Slaves:
Slavery existed since ancient times, including in Africa.
European powers exploited African territories for resources, including human beings.
Triangular trade established:
Ships loaded with goods crossed the Atlantic to Britain and Europe.
Ships loaded with manufactured goods headed to Africa.
Ships returned to America with slaves.
Historians estimate over 12 million Africans were transported to slave markets between the 16th and 19th centuries.
Forced Transportation of Convicts:
Industrialization and the Agricultural Revolution in Britain led to population increase and movement from farms to cities.
Overcrowded and unhealthy living conditions became commonplace, leading to crime.
British authorities housed prisoners in hulks (ships no longer seaworthy) and then transported them to North America and Australia.
First Fleet sailed to Australia in 1787 with 751 convicts, establishing a European settlement.
Between 1788 and 1868, 162000 convicts were transported to Australia.
Free Movement of Settlers:
People left their homelands for safety and better opportunities.
Cheap or free grants of land drew immigrants to North America, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
Push factors included poverty, famine, and political upheaval.
Discovery of gold in California (1848) and Australia (1851) brought immigrants from Europe and China.
Australia: Making of a Modern Nation:
Settlement linked to changes in British society caused by the Industrial Revolution.
Convict settlements were seen as a solution for overcrowded jails, a consequence of mass movement and harsh living conditions.
Australia's settlement was also linked to Britain's expansion of colonies.
Exports of wool, timber, and sugar increased the wealth of the British Empire and contributed to Australia's economy.
Australia became a place where ex-convicts and free migrants found opportunities for new lives and prosperity, particularly during the gold boom.
Convicts and settlers provided labor that helped build a new nation and brought progressive political ideas, which played a crucial role in the establishment of Australia's democratic system.
Progressive Ideas and Movements:
From the mid-17th century, new ideas challenged established ways of thinking.
The Enlightenment (from around 1650) saw thinkers question existing ideas about science, religion, education, and governance.
Progressive Ideas and Movements included:
Capitalism
Socialism
Egalitarianism
Imperialism
Nationalism
Darwinism
Chartism
Key Events:
American War of Independence (1775) challenged traditions and authorities.
French Revolution (1789) changed the nature of society.
Capitalism:
An economic system relying on private ownership of industry and the means of production.
Private industrialists and entrepreneurs took on financial risks and made profits.
Great Britain was the major capitalist economy in the 19th century.
The USA became the largest capitalist economy, particularly after World War I.
Socialism:
An alternative economic system where governments (the state) play a crucial role in resource allocation and wealth distribution.
The means of production are owned collectively, and the state manages and distributes them.
Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx developed socialist theories to counteract capitalist tendencies.
Their socialist theories became popular as unrestricted capitalism led to poverty and exploitation of workers.
Egalitarianism:
The idea of equality among people.
Striving for all people to be considered of equal worth regardless of social status.
Belief that all people should be offered the same opportunities in society.
As a political philosophy, it helped justify working-class demands for political representation.
Nationalism:
People in Europe identified with their local village or ruler until the 18th century.
The concept of a nation emerged after the American and French revolutions.
During the 19th century, European peoples identified themselves as united and loyal to a particular country or state.
Feelings of nationalism led to the creation of independent nations.
Examples of Nationalism:
Irish nationalists demanded self-government or independence from Great Britain.
Greece freed itself from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.
Belgium won its independence from the Dutch in 1831.
Revolutions broke out across Europe in 1848 as different nations demanded the right to exist independently. By 1871, Italy and Germany had emerged as unified nations.
By 1914, the drive for nationalism in the Balkans would be a key contributor to the outbreak of World War I.
Imperialism:
Control of countries or territories by foreign powers.
From the 18th to the early 20th century, European states imposed their economic, political, and cultural domination over their colonies.
Great Britain, Spain, France, Portugal, the Netherlands, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottomans all claimed significant empires.
New nations like Italy and Germany aggressively acquired empires.
As the USA grew into a major economic power, economic imperialism also emerged (e.g., American products conquering markets without weapons).
Darwinism:
The theory of evolution, brought to prominence with Charles Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.
Darwin's scientific theories challenged literal interpretations of the Bible.
His research showed that species evolved over time.
He argued that the fittest species survived and that those species unable to adapt perished.
Social Darwinism:
The 'survival of the fittest' theory was used to justify European conquest of Indigenous peoples.
Submission of lower classes of people was justified.
Social Darwinism was regarded as a rationale for not interfering with the 'inferiority' of some social or racial groups.
Chartism:
Workers organized into groups to protect themselves due to factory and mine owners seeking greater profits by paying workers less and disregarding their health.
Trade unions were formed to protect workers' rights.
In 1838, a group demanded political representation for the working class.
Followers were called Chartists because they proposed a People's Charter.
The goal was to give all men the vote and stop the wealthy from dominating political decision-making.
The Chartists and other early trade unionists faced political repression and were transported to Australia as convicts, where they continued to demand equal political representation.
The Movement of Peoples (1750 to 1901):
A large increase in the number of people moving around the world, directly linked to the Industrial Revolution and expansion of European powers.
Some movements were forced (e.g., slavery and convict transportation), while others were voluntary.
Mass migration to North America and Australia greatly affected the Indigenous peoples.
How the Industrial Revolution Influenced the Movement of Peoples:
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain around 1750 and spread to Europe, North America, and other parts of the world.
Major social and economic changes caused by industrialization contributed to mass movements of people.
The Industrial Revolution in Britain:
Technological innovations in manufacturing, mining, transportation, and agriculture changed Britain's social structure and economy.
Britain transformed from an agricultural society to an urban society.
Country towns grew rapidly, becoming industrial and commercial cities.
Advances in Farming Methods (Agricultural Revolution):
Clearing of land and enclosures of common farmland to create larger crop production areas.
New farming techniques improved crop yields and the quality of livestock.
New equipment and machines increased crop production and processing.
Impact on Small Farmers:
The Agricultural Revolution led to the end of a way of life for many small farmers and their families.
Thousands were displaced by enclosures and machinery.
A wave of migration occurred from the country to the newly emerging towns and cities.
People flocked to towns and cities looking for work or emigrated to North America.
Population Growth:
Improvements in food production and medicine led to a significant population increase.
Britain's population grew from approximately million in 1750 to million by 1800 and to over million by 1911.
Population growth created great pressures, especially with new technology reducing available jobs.
Living Conditions during the Industrial Revolution:
New urban working class lived in densely populated, polluted, and unhealthy conditions.
Workers' housing was built cheaply to reduce costs and increase profits.
Overcrowded living conditions led to the spread of disease.
In 1845, a British Parliamentary inquiry found that in many industrial cities, thousands lived in houses lacking toilet facilities.
Working Conditions:
Long hours (six days a week) in hot, noisy, and dangerous conditions.
Women and children were employed because they were cheaper labor.
Children as young as six were employed in mines and factories.
Phrase 'dark satanic mills' referred to the miserable working conditions.
Impact on Movement of Peoples (Linked):
Convict transportation addressed overcrowding in jails caused by increased crime in industrial cities.
European imperialism established colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, contributing to forced and voluntary movements.
Free settlers looked for opportunities outside Britain due to harsh conditions in cities.
Highland Clearances in Scotland forced people off their traditional lands.
The Slave Trade:
Purpose was to provide labor for British and European colonies in the Americas to produce raw materials.
Triangular trade involved:
Europeans purchasing slaves captured in Africa.
Slaves were transported to the Americas and sold.
Raw materials were shipped back to Europe.
Finished goods were shipped to Africa and traded for more slaves.
Convict Transportation from Britain:
Towns and cities expansion led to an increase in Britain's crime rates.
Transportation of convicts away from Britain to colonies.
1788-1868: Over 162,000 convicted British criminals were transported to Australian colonies.
Convict Policy Rationale:
Based on the belief that removing the criminal class from the wider population would stop crimes.Additionally, this policy aimed to provide cheap labor to help develop the fledgling colonies, allowing for agricultural and infrastructural expansion.
Convicts were first sent to British colonies in North America, then to New South Wales after Britain lost control of American colonies in 1783.This shift marked the beginning of a new chapter in British penal policy, as transportation to Australia was seen as a solution to the overcrowding of prisons and a means to establish a British presence in the Pacific.
Consequences in the New South Wales:
The First Fleet of 11 ships, with >700 convicts, traveled to NSW in 1787.
Other Penal Colonies:
Tasmania, Port Phillip in Victoria, Swan River in Western Australia, Moreton Bay in Queensland and Norfolk Island.
For over 80 years, convicts helped to develop those Colonies.
Political Prisoners:
Workers in the first trade unions were among some sent.
The Tolpuddle Martyrs is an example of workers sent as convicts.
Political prisoners played a crucial role in the establishment of representative democracy in the Australian colonies
Who were the Convicts?
The convict reality has been uneasy in Australia given historical context.
Perspectives range from seeing them as protesting against corrupt government or as harsh criminals deserving their punishment. Transportees included young people stealing minor goods to hardened repeat offenders.
40% of the convicts transported in the First and Second Fleets came from the London area.
Free Settlers to the New World:
Free Settlers willingly migrated to establish new lives.
Choice of destination was highly influential in decision making.
Australia and North America drew Immigrants in to take nearly-free grants of land.
North America:
Colonies previously under Britain fought war from 1775 to 1783 seeking freedom.
New settlers moved westward with new trade routes and settlements contributing to employment. Later in the 19th Century Canada Opened Up free land.
Gold:
1848 Saw US California gold rush leading to huge settling. Smaller Canada Gold hits added to this leading to North America being known as the land of opportunity.
Australian Colonies:
In the 1820's there were more assisted migrations where the government assisted and provided cheap workers.
Discovery famously occurred in 1851 New South Wales at the gold means and populations exploded.
Perception of easier freedom to express different ways of life led to influx.