Yugoslavia under Tito

TIMELINE

1941 → Axis attack and conquest of Yugoslavia

1944 → Percentages Agreement

1945 → Creation of Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia → Defeat of German army by Partisans → Partisans liberate Trieste

1946 → Greek Civil War → Yugoslavia shoots down US planes in Yugoslav airspace

1947 → Creation of Free Territory of Trieste → Truman Doctrine → Formation of Cominform

1948 → Yugoslavia expelled from Cominform = Soviet-Yugoslav Split

1949 → USA offers assistance to Yugoslavia

1951 → US economic and military aid to Yugoslavia

1953 → Crisis over Trieste

1954 → Division of Trieste between Italy and Yugoslavia

1955 → Bandung Conference → Khrushchev’s visit to Yugoslavia

1961 → Formation of the Non-Aligned Movement

1963 → First New Constitution

1974 → Second New Constitution

1980 → Tito’s death

CREATION OF YUGOSLAVIA

factors that allowed Tito to take over the power after WWII

1. Success of his Partisans against Germans, royalists and Serbian Chetniks.

2. The neutrality of Partisans - they were not connected to any nationalities, instead they organised communities into egalitarian communes.

3. Tito managed to liberate Yugoslavia mostly by himself, thus he managed to establish administrative, economic and military structures, which allowed for natural implementation of communism.

4. He also stopped any opposition - during the 1st elections he banned newspapers published by oppositionists and stopped their participation in elections (only communist party members could gain votes).

5. His was perceived as national hero (he developed this reputation during war and upheld it after the war has ended)

division of the country

Six socialist republics:

1. Bosnia-Herzegovina

2. Croatia

3. Macedonia

4. Montenegro

5. Serbia

6. Slovenia

Additionally, two autonomous provinces within Serbia granted this status due to the large number of ethnic minorities in their territories:

1. Kosovo

2. Vojvodina

Not easy to rule, different languages, nationalities, religions within Yugoslavia

• Tito promoted Yugoslav culture

• Tito said he was Yugoslav more than any other nation

• it was his method to unify country

• Keeping together different nationalities by force was not efficient in the long term, after Tito’s death the countries of Yugoslavia split

elections

Why were the elections only partially legitimate?

• Universal suffrage for all aged 18 and over (with exception for fascists and collaborators)

• Constituent Assembly elections scheduled for 11 November 1945

• All accepted non-communist parties were absorbed by a People’s Front, only its members could campaign

• Oppositions newspapers banned, it was clear that only pro-Tito, pro-communists could candidate

In fact, only one faction was represented, so it was no surprise that Tito and the communists won.

(On the other hand: Tito really had support in his country, Serbs collaborated with fascists and Nazist, Tito was seen as a kind of hero)

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FOREIGN POLICY

Trieste situation

POPULARITY in the area

Communist were supported by the working classes, they viewed egalitarianism and anti-nationalistic stance appealing.

Many identify Italian with fascists and Yugoslav with communists. Many who suffered under fascism were drawn to the Yugoslav form.

Why was it difficult for the Allies to admit Trieste either to Italy or Yugoslavia?

When the Allies took power over Trieste, there were three decisions in consideration:

1. to give it to Italy

2. to give it Yugoslavia

3. to create an independent, UN-controlled region there

Trieste was significant economically for both Italy and Yugoslavia and thus upon not receiving control of it they would suffer. At the same time neither the USA or Britain wanted such an important port to fall into the communist sphere, but were also reluctant to reward an ex-Axis Italy with it.

Conflict resolution

• The decision was made to establish a free territory with a governor sanctioned by the UN Security Council

• This led to the official establishment of the Free Territory of Trieste on February 10, 1947

• However, the United Nations encountered challenges in reaching a consensus on who should oversee this territory

• the region was divided into two zones

  • Zone A

    • under the control of the United States and Britain

    • governed by the Allied Military Government

    • encompassing Venezia Giulia

    • while Yugoslavia was required to completely withdraw from the city (Venezia Giulia)

  • Zone B

    • given to Yugoslavia

    • included Istria and a part of the Julian March

    • city itself was intended to be internationalized under UN administration and become a free city with an Italian border

• The compromise was not satisfactory to both sides:

  • Allied MIlitary Government was not as welcome in the region, Yugoslavs were far more popular than the USA and Britain

  • fascist laws were restrained in Zone A

  • UN used the 1921 census to justify the divisions, the Slovens felt they had been underrepresented

  • Tensions remained high in the area

Balkan Federation

reasons to create Balkan Federation

• Yugoslavia developed an expansionist view that reflected both communism and historical designs on the region

• Albania and Bulgaria were communist and there was hope that Greek communists would be victorious in the Civil War

• Albania was already linked with Yugoslavia

  • the Albanian Communist Party, army and economy were all controlled by men loyal to Belgrade

  • their economies were closely linked

• Tito even considered making Albania another republic within Yugoslavia (and giving it Kosovo)

• Bulgaria and Yugoslavia both claimed portions of Greece and both sought to expand to the Aegean Sea, hoping to integrate relevant portions of Greece into their countries

• to the three countries the idea of Balkan Federation seemed a logical extension of ideological and regional solidarity

Non-Aligned Movement

• leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement  was a cornerstone of Yugoslavia’s foreign policy 

• most countries were former colonies in Africa and Asia - Tito found he had more in common with them than other powers

• joining the movement would allow him to travel to western and communist worlds freely

• its roots = in the Bandung Conference -  the movement was formally created in Belgrade in 1961

• Membership would prevent countries from becoming the subordinate to the major powers or slipping back into a colonial relationship => since the countries would reinforce one another

• they often had a majority in the UN General Assembly, but lacked real authority → the permanent members of the Security Council could override most of the decisions they made

• In the late 1960s and 1970s, the agenda of the Non-Aligned Movement shifted more towards economic development

• Yugoslavia was more economically developed due to foreign assistance, so it didn’t necessarily share the goal of economic development

• Tito remained a steadfast supporter of the principles of non-alignment and supported the organisation until his death in 1980

SOVIET-YUGOSLAV SPLIT

How the situation in Greece affected Tito – Stalin relations? 

• Tito’s support for the guerilla camps made Stalin afraid

• seeing how Tito was able to maintain power in his state, as well as his plans for the Balkan Federation made Stalin fear that:

  • Yugoslavia would become the strongest communist state in Europe

  • become independent from the USSR

  • it would prevent the USSR from being able to reign as much control in Europe

• The true break of Tito-Stalin relations occurred during their meeting in Moscow, where:

  • Stalin proposed for Tito to join a smaller union with only Bulgaria

  • Tito directly refused Stalin’s offer, showing his defiance towards the Soviets

  • Stalin withdraw his advisors from Yugoslavia

  • as well as forced the Eastern bloc to expel Yugoslavia from the Cominform

  • so Yugoslavia became the first communist state independent from the USSR

• Tito further separated himself from the Soviet influence by purging the pro-Cominform party members.

• Stalin attempted economic pressure by a trade embargo, tried to assassinate Tito, and even briefly planned an invasion of Yugoslavia - nonetheless, Tito remained in power and Yugoslavia remained independent. 

Expelled from Cominform (1948)

Officially: Yugoslav aid for Greece communist partisans violated Cominform agreements.

In truth: Stalin wanted Yugoslavia to become USSR’s satellite state - Stalin felt that Tito became too independent and wanted to temper his reign. Also, Tito refused to cooperate with Stalin - he deliberately chose not to send his representatives to the Cominform meeting.

How did the expulsion affect Tito’s position?

Yugoslavia

• Tito remained strong in power despite a rising unrest

• because of his regular targeting of Stalin supporters

• Those who spoke out against Tito were targeted by the government and sent to jail or prison camps by the UDBA

• UDBA also targeted and eliminated agents against Tito, assuring of his absolute rule. 

Europe

• Tito wanted Yugoslavia to be fully independent

• However Yugoslavia was not a powerful state like the USSR or China, and needed the relationship with other countries to survive

• Tito realised that, as a shunned communist state, he could wage support from the West, without having his ideology challenged

• Other countries soon came to a similar conclusion, creating an affiliation of countries aimed to support one another in modernization while straying from involvement in the Cold War

• Tito then became the sole European leader of the Non-Aligned Movement. 

US & West

• Tito was deprived of support from the East because of Cominform

• Americans were happy to offer help to Yugoslavia as it was free of Soviet influence, although Tito was at first apprehensive

• The USA also provided Yugoslavia with support in hopes that, seeing the benefits, other Soviet countries would follow Tito’s decision and break away from Soviet influence

US reaction on THE SPLIT

1949 → the USA provided limited assistance

1951 → an auxiliary recipient of Marshall Aid and military assistance

USA was hoping that assistance to Tito would encourage other countries in the Soviet Sphere to follow Tito’s model and break away

They offered him participation in NATO, however, Tito refused. 

How did Stalin’s death (March 1953) affect Tito’s relations with the USSR?

• Khrushchev decided to begin the thaw in foreign relations of the USSR, by introducing his peaceful co-existence

• the policy that stated that the USSR can cooperate and live in peaceful relations with Western countries

• because of this policy Khrushchev began his tour of the Western countries

• In 1955, he met with Tito in Belgrad, which signalised the improvement of relations

• the relationship was still aloof

• Yugoslavia was still not a member of Cominform

• but it did trade with Eastern Countries

ECONOMIC SITUATION

economic system after WWII

• was economically liberal – yugoslav economy was opened, meaning it marketed with capitalist countries freely

• flowed and developed jobs were created

• food could be bought from abroad

• Tito was more liberal in economy which created a sense that it helped Tito and Yugoslavia have a great relationship with capitalist countries

• In the 1950s, the Self-management Socialism was introduced, reducing control of the economy by the state

• The economy was organized as a mixed economy of socialist planning and market socialism: factories were nationalized and workers were entitled to a certain portion of the profits

• Privately owned Manufactures could employ up to 4 persons per owner

• the land was partially nationalized and redistributed, and partly collectivized

• Rural properties could own up to 10 hectares of land per person and excess arable land was owned by cooperatives, agricultural enterprises or local communities = these could sell and buy land and give it to people in perpetual lease

• Their leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement → companies exported to both Western and Eastern markets and carried out construction of numerous large infrastructure and industrial projects in Africa, Europe and Asia

• Emigration has been allowed freely since the 1960s → many people looked for work in Western Europe, notably in Germany. This helped to keep unemployment under control and also worked as a source of capital and generation of foreign exchange

• Basic organizations of associated labor were also introduced in public services, including health and education (usually made of only dozens of people and had their own workers' councils)

  • it gave all employees the same access to decision making

  • their approval was required for strategic decisions and appointment of managers in enterprises or public institutions

• Strikes could be called by any worker or group of workers, and came to be common in certain periods

• became a regional success in economic, industrial and energy

• high inflation and unemployment -> market socialism’s growth in late 1960s

• (with the exception of a recession in the mid-1960s) the economy prospered formidably

  • two decades before 1980, the average annual growth in gross domestic product (GDP) was 6.1%

  • the public and free health service was universalized

  • illiteracy was 9%

  • unemployment was low

  • the educational level of the workforce increased rapidly and life expectancy was 72 years

economic changes after 1948

1. Loss of Cominform Trade: After the split with the Soviet Union and the loss of Cominform trade and assistance, Yugoslavia faced initial economic challenges. However, this separation freed the country from Soviet economic doctrines.

2. Economic Autonomy: The loss of Soviet support accelerated Yugoslavia's pursuit of economic autonomy. Tito was determined not to be dependent on Soviet goods and trade, leading to a shift away from Soviet economic principles.

3. Worker Self-Management: The concept of "worker self-management" emerged, with the establishment of workers' councils in key industries. While these councils had limited unilateral power, they marked a departure from traditional communism and promoted the idea of employees owning and managing their firms.

4. Infrastructure Projects: Yugoslav youth actively participated in vast infrastructure projects. This involvement, coupled with massive housing projects in emerging industrial areas, brought the country back to pre-war levels by the 1950s.

5. Economic Growth: Between 1952 and 1959, Yugoslavia experienced a remarkable 13% annual growth in industrial production. Despite consistent deficits, the country's economy grew substantially, fueled by centralization and assistance from the United States.

6. Decentralisation: By 1960, the government recognized the need for new approaches. Decentralisation became a key strategy, leading to the de-nationalization of industries and the creation of market socialism. This marked a shift towards a system where workers owned their firms and shared in the generated profits.

7. Market Socialism: The adoption of market socialism allowed small private businesses to thrive, and the workers' ownership model contributed to economic growth. Despite challenges like inflation and unemployment in the late 1960s, the shift to market socialism continued to fuel economic development.

8. Tourism and Foreign Employment: The freedom to work abroad and a flourishing tourism industry, drawing visitors from across Europe, became significant contributors to Yugoslavia's economic success.

SOCIAL SITUATION

social changes after 1948

1. Shift to Urbanisation: As the economy developed, there was a notable shift from rural to urban areas. Urbanisation brought about improvements in literacy rates and life expectancy.

2. Quality of Life: Yugoslavia's quality of life became comparable to Western Europe rather than the rest of the communist world. The combination of economic growth and social changes elevated the standard of living for the population.

3. New Constitution (1963): The 1963 Constitution aimed to strike a balance by separating the government from the Communist Party, offering more personal freedoms, and expanding human rights for the population.

4. Resurgence of Repression (1970s): Despite economic successes, the 1970s witnessed a resurgence of repression. A new constitution sought to decentralise political responsibilities to the republics while retaining central control over the economy, presenting a challenging proposition.

5. Tito's Dominance: Tito continued to dominate politics well into his 80s. However, his death in 1980 marked the end of an era, leading to subsequent changes and challenges in both the economic and social spheres.

TITO’s LIFE

• Shortly after Tito’s return to Belgrad, he took a tour through royal palaces in the Dedinje district and ordered their renovation. While in large part this renovation has been symbolic for the city folk, it was also beneficial for Tito. For himself, Tito kept Beli Dvor, Stari Dvor and an unfinished aristocratic villa. Stari Dvor was dedicated to Tito’s guests, Beli Dvor was a space for work and the villa was Tito’s private residence. In following years, Tito took over more of the neighbouring buildings, eventually creating a private complex surrounded by a wall. On the courtyard of this complex stood a statue of Tito’s horse, upon which he rode into war, and of Ivo Lola Ribar who died from a German explosive. 

• Tito was not legally allowed to reside in these buildings. This did not bother him, until the celebration of New Years in 1945, when among New Year's best wishes he found a letter calling out his unlawful occupation of the Karađorđevic residence. This caused Tito to flee the residence and never move in again. Otherwise, Tito didn’t have issues with claiming property as his own. One such example is when he and an accompanying general found chests of gold in a Dedinje basement, to which the general proposed donating them to the National Bank - however, this got Tito offended, and he kept the riches, with the pretext that he’ll find a use for it. 

• Tito was very social - he shared the aristocratic residences he occupied with his fellow comrades. He also often invited them for billard, movie screenings and hunting. Hunting became a routine for the elites, divided by rank, with Tito being allowed to hunt the most game. His hunts were his utmost priority and passion, and even during the Trieste crisis he made the effort to go on hunting escapades. 

HISTORIAN’s OPINION - Jože Pirjevec

about foreign policy

“The former idol of the Yugoslav partisans remains irreconcilable. Wanting to stay in power, Tito and his closest comrades decided to resist.”

“With the support of army, police, security services and a large part of society, Tito tried to run an autonomous and independent policy, both domestic and foreign, e.g. regarding the so-called the Balkan federation or the civil war in Greece.”

“It was an anticipation of the later policy of the Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceausescu, who also tried to reconcile Stalinist orthodoxy with his own autonomous actions - either towards Israel in 1967 or during the intervention of Warsaw Pact troops in Czechoslovakia.”

about economy

“Tito was aware and talked about it publicly that Yugoslavia’s economy similarly like in other soviet satellites is standing on clay legs and its inefficiency is caused by the omission of market mechanisms and abandonment of economic calculation.” 

“In 1962 he stated that economists are operating according to the principle: „Take money and no matter how profitable it is, invest in your neighbourhood. No one will take the factory you built, and if it is not profitable, the state will give you new money, because according to the logic of the statist economic system no one will go bankrupt.” 

“The worse the economic situation became, the more national conflicts began. The fights in previously uniform government apparatus caused Tito to implement economic, social, political foreign relationships reforms in 60s. They ended in failure, and their only consequence was decentralisation of the country.”

“Yugoslavia became the only communist country with decentralised constitutional structure, which was controlled by Tito and his co-workers; pre-war communist from comintern breed, who aimed to keep the country united.”

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