The Outbreak and Causes of World War I (1914–1918)

The Historical Context and the Five Great Powers of 1914

• In $1914$, European geopolitics was dominated by five 'Great Powers': Britain, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and France.
• To be classified as a 'Great Power' during this era, a nation was required to possess four specific pillars of strength:
  • A large and capable army and navy.
  • A strong, centralized ruler.
  • A sprawling colonial empire.
  • A robust industrial society.
• Britain was considered the 'Greatest' of the powers in $1914$. It was exceptionally wealthy, possessed a massive industrial base, controlled the largest empire globally, and maintained the world's most powerful navy.
• Britain was governed by King George V, who was the grandson of Queen Victoria. His familial status was significant as he was the cousin to both the Tsar of Russia and the Kaiser of Germany.

The Ambitions of Germany and the Rivalry of Cousins

• Germany was ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm II. As a cousin to both the King of England and the Tsar of Russia, his leadership was marked by intense competition with Britain.
• Germany possessed several strategic advantages in its rivalry with Britain:
  • A larger population than Britain.
  • Industrial sectors that were, in many instances, more advanced than British industries.
  • Abundant natural resources.
  • Rapidly expanding global trade; by $1913$, Germany surpassed Britain in the volume of goods sold within Europe.
• Kaiser Wilhelm II sought to elevate Germany to become the most important country in the world, a goal he famously described as 'seeking a place in the sun.'
• This objective involved the acquisition of an overseas empire, specifically targeting territories in Africa, which sparked significant tension with the established empires of France and Britain.

The French Republic and the Legacy of the Franco-Prussian War

• Unlike its monarchical neighbors, France was a Republic, having abolished its monarchy in $1870$.
• France had historically been a preeminent European power until its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of $1870-71$.
• The peace treaty following that defeat forced France to cede the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the Prussians (Germans).
• This loss created a deep-seated hatred for Germany in France, fueling a desire for national revenge.
• While France was less industrialized than Germany or Britain, it remained a formidable power due to its large army and extensive colonial empire.

The Russian Empire and Its Balkan Aspirations

• Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, another cousin to the British King and the German Kaiser.
• Russia was the largest nation in the world geographically in $1914$ with a population numbering $159 \text{ million}$.
• Due to the land-based nature of its empire (which was located directly on its doorstep), Russia did not prioritize a large overseas empire. The empire was highly diverse, consisting of many ethnic groups speaking various languages.
• Russia maintained a massive army, though it lagged behind the other Great Powers in terms of industrialization.
• Russia’s primary geopolitical goal leading up to $1914$ was increasing its influence in the Balkans.
• The Russian interest in the Balkans was driven by cultural and ethnic ties, as the people of the Balkans were Slavs, sharing common history and culture with Russians.

Austria-Hungary and the Internal Threat of Nationalism

• Austria-Hungary was ruled by Emperor Franz Joseph I.
• Situated in the center of Europe, it was a large empire populated by many different ethnic groups with distinct languages, customs, and ways of life. This diversity made the empire exceptionally difficult to govern because many groups did not get along.
• Many of these ethnic groups sought independence to rule themselves, a sentiment known as Nationalism.
• Nationalism is defined as the political ideology that people who share the same language, culture, history, and land should govern themselves, prioritizing their own interests and identity over others.
• Despite these internal pressures, Austria-Hungary sought to expand its empire into the Balkans, which brought it into direct conflict with Russia's interests in the same region.

Long-Term Causes: The M.A.I.N Framework

• The underlying causes of World War I are traditionally categorized by the acronym M.A.I.N.:
  • M militarism: The philosophy or system that places a high premium on military power.
  • A alliances: Formal agreements between nations to support and protect one another.
  • I imperialism: The policy and practice of conquering and controlling foreign territories.
  • N nationalism: The belief in self-governance for ethnic and cultural groups.

The Naval Arms Race and the Rise of the Dreadnought

• In the years leading up to the war, the Great Powers engaged in an Arms Race—a rapid escalation in the quantity and quality of military assets including weapons, ships, and personnel.
• Britain’s necessity for a large navy was driven by its geography as an island and its dependence on trade with its vast global empire for food and resources.
• Kaiser Wilhelm II, motivated by jealousy of Britain’s power, sought to build a navy that could rival Britain's to protect Germany's own burgeoning empire.
• The German Navy Law of $1898$ explicitly stated that Germany would construct a fleet capable of challenging the world's strongest navy, which was a direct provocation to Britain.
• Consequently, Germany increased its naval strength by $16$ vessels within three years. The Second Navy Law of $1900$ authorized the construction of an additional $19$ battleships over the following $17$ years.
• Britain responded with a policy ensuring its navy was equal to the combined size of the world's next two strongest navies (at the time, France and Russia) to deter any potential attacks.
• This race escalated in $1906$ with the launch of the Dreadnought, a new class of battleship that was the most powerful ever built. By $1914$, Britain had produced $29$ Dreadnoughts, while Germany had produced $17$.
• New naval ports were established in Scotland specifically to protect the North Sea from German expansion.

The Military Arms Race and Conscription

• Military buildup was not limited to the seas. Germany, France, Russia, and Austria-Hungary utilized conscription (compulsory military service) to maintain large standing armies.
• Britain was the outlier, as it did not have a standing army at home; its forces were distributed across its global empire.
• The motivation for this buildup was rooted in Nationalism, as each nation sought to be militarily 'better' than its rivals.
• By $1913$, most Great Powers had at least doubled their military spending compared to $1890$ levels.

The Alliance Systems of Pre-War Europe

• An alliance system is a network of countries that have promised to protect and support one another in the event of conflict. By $1914$, two primary blocks were formed:
• The Triple Alliance:
  • Founded on the Dual Alliance of $1879$ between Germany and Austria-Hungary. The German Chancellor Bismarck initiated this to protect Germany should Russia attack.
  • Italy joined this group in $1882$, primarily directing the alliance toward countering France.
• The Triple Entente:
  • Developed as a reaction to the Triple Alliance. France and Russia formed the Franco-Russian Alliance in $1894$, promising mutual military aid if attacked by a power such as Germany.
  • Britain initially maintained a policy of 'Splendid Isolation,' believing its status as the greatest power meant it did not need allies. However, concerns over its empire and the rise of other alliances led Britain to sign the Entente Cordiale with France in $1904$.
  • In $1907$, Britain signed a similar agreement with Russia, forming the Triple Entente.
• It is critical to distinguish that an 'Entente' (like the Triple Entente) is a friendly understanding rather than a formal military alliance. Britain had no formal commitment to support France or Russia militarily. Conversely, the Triple Alliance was a formal military agreement.

Imperialism and Global Rivalries

• All Great Powers vied for territory and colonies worldwide, leading to flashpoints of friction.
• Britain and France were primarily concerned with German expansion in Africa.
• Austria-Hungary and Russia were locked in a rivalry over the Balkans.
• Britain’s dependence on its empire for essential resources made it a target of envy for other powers, particularly Germany, which believed Britain's era of dominance was ending and sought its own share of global control.
• Short-term crises that heightened tensions between $1908$ and $1913$ included:
  • The Moroccan Crisis ($1905-06$).
  • The First Balkan Crisis ($1908$).
  • The Second Moroccan Crisis ($1911$).
  • The Second and Third Balkan Crises ($1912-13$).

The Trigger Cause: The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

• On June $28, 1914$, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, visited Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, to inspect troops.
• Sarajevo was a site of high tension, with a terrorist group known as the Black Hand seeking to unite Bosnia with Serbia.
• Seven assassins from the Black Hand planned to kill the Archduke during the inspection.
• The attempt initially seemed to fail: the first assassin missed, and a second threw a grenade that exploded under the following car, injuring others.
• Later, while the Archduke was on his way to visit the blast victims in the hospital, his driver took a wrong turn and drove directly past Gavrilo Princip, a third assassin. Princip shot and killed both the Archduke and his wife.

The Domino Effect and International Declarations of War

• Austria-Hungary interrogated the captured conspirators and determined the organizers were in Serbia. They issued a series of demands:
  • Serbia must hand over the terrorists for trial in an Austrian court.
  • Serbia must take the blame for the assassination.
  • Austria-Hungary must be allowed to police anti-Austrian groups within Serbia.
• Serbia refused these demands. After securing the support and approval of Germany, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July $28, 1914$.
• This triggered a rapid chain of events based on the alliance systems:
  • July 30: Russia (ally of Serbia) mobilized its troops.
  • July 31: Germany (ally of Austria-Hungary) demanded Russia stand down while simultaneously mobilizing its own forces.
  • August 1: Germany declared war on Russia, and France (ally of Russia) mobilized.
  • August 2: Germany invaded Luxembourg and demanded passage through neutral Belgium to reach France; Belgium refused.
  • August 3: Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium. Britain, supporting Belgium due to the Treaty of London of $1839$ (which pledged to protect Belgian neutrality), mobilized its army.
  • August 4: After Germany refused a British warning to withdraw from Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany.
  • August 6: Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia.
  • August 12: Britain and France declared war on Austria-Hungary.
• Italy chose to remain out of the conflict until $1915$, at which point it joined the Allies.

Early War Strategies: Schlieffen Plan and Plan 17

• Most participants believed the war would be short, famously thinking it would be 'over by Christmas' $1914$. This caused men to enlist in haste to ensure they did not miss the conflict.
• The Schlieffen Plan (Germany): Created in $1905$ by General von Schlieffen. The goal was to knock France out of the war in six weeks by invading through neutral Belgium to capture Paris from the north while other troops attacked from the east. This would allow Germany to then focus entirely on Russia, who they assumed would be slow to mobilize.
• Plan 17 (France): Authored in $1913$ by General Joffre. This plan involved an immediate, all-out attack to recapture Alsace and Lorraine. After taking these provinces, French troops would cross the Rhine and advance toward Berlin. Crucially, the French had no plans for a potential German invasion from the north through Belgium.

The Transition to Stalemate

• several factors prevented the quick victory many expected:
  • August 19: Russia mobilized much faster than predicted, invading Eastern Germany. Germany was forced to divert troops from the Belgian front to defend its eastern border.
  • August 23-24 (Battle of Mons): The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) met the German advance in Belgium. Though the British eventually retreated, they slowed the German timeline by $48\text{ hours}$.
  • Plan 17 Failure: France failed to retake Alsace-Lorraine, but their defense slowed the German advance into France by another two weeks.
  • September 5-11 (Battle of the Marne): The German army, weakened and overextended, was unable to take Paris and moved toward the River Marne. After a week of combat, the German advance was halted.
• With the advance stopped, German troops were forced to 'dig in' along the River Aisne to defend their positions. The French and the BEF also 'dug in' opposite them, marking the commencement of a stalemate where neither side could make significant progress. This shift away from strategic maneuvering toward attrition resulted in massive casualties unprecedented in previous warfare.