lifespan development midterm

Lifespan Development Study Guide (Chapters 1–3)

Chapter 1: Introduction to Lifespan Development

What is Lifespan Development?

Lifespan development is the scientific study of how people grow, change, and remain the same from conception until death. Development occurs in three major domains:

• Physical: Body growth, brain development, motor skills, health

• Cognitive: Thinking, learning, memory, language

• Psychosocial: Personality, emotions, relationships, and social development

Development is influenced by both biology and environment throughout the entire lifespan.

Lifespan Perspective (Paul Baltes)

Baltes proposed several principles that explain human development:

• Development is lifelong

• Development is multidirectional (growth and decline occur simultaneously)

• Development is multidimensional (physical, cognitive, psychosocial)

• Development is multidisciplinary

• Development demonstrates plasticity (capacity to change)

• Development is multicontextual

Contextual Influences

• Normative age-graded influences

• Normative history-graded influences (cohorts)

• Non-normative life events

• Socioeconomic status (SES)

• Culture

Lifespan vs. Life Expectancy

• Lifespan: Maximum possible years a person can live.

• Life expectancy: Average number of years expected to live.

Conceptions of Age

Age can be measured in several ways:

• Chronological age – actual age in years

• Biological age – physical condition of the body

• Psychological age – cognitive and emotional functioning

• Social age – cultural expectations for age-related behaviors

Periods of Development

Major Issues in Development

Nature vs. Nurture

• Genetics vs. environment

• Most development results from both.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

• Gradual change vs. stage-like development.

Active vs. Passive

• Individuals influence their own development versus being shaped by others.

Stability vs. Change

• Which traits remain constant and which change over time?

Historical Theories

Preformationism

• Children viewed as miniature adults.

John Locke

• Blank Slate (Tabula Rasa)

• Environment shapes development.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• Natural maturation.

• Development occurs in stages.

Arnold Gesell

• Maturation theory.

• Biological readiness determines development.

Sigmund Freud

• Psychodynamic theory.

• Early childhood experiences shape personality.

Contemporary Theories

Erik Erikson

Eight psychosocial stages across the lifespan.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorism

• Reinforcement shapes behavior.

Albert Bandura

Social Learning Theory

• Learning through observation and imitation.

• Reciprocal determinism.

Jean Piaget

Cognitive Development

• Children actively construct knowledge.

Lev Vygotsky

• Learning occurs through social interaction.

Research Methods

• Descriptive

• Correlational

• Experimental

Research designs:

• Cross-sectional

• Longitudinal

• Sequential

Ethics:

• Informed consent

• Confidentiality

• Protection from harm

• Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Chapter 2: Heredity, Prenatal Development, and Birth

Heredity

Heredity is the transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring.

Important concepts:

• DNA

• Genes

• Chromosomes

• Genome

Humans inherit 23 chromosomes from each parent, for a total of 46 chromosomes.

Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotype

A person's genetic makeup.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics resulting from genes interacting with the environment.

Examples:

• Height

• Eye color

• Personality

• Disease risk

Genetic Disorders

Single-gene disorders include:

• Cystic fibrosis

• Huntington's disease

• Sickle cell disease

• Tay-Sachs disease

Chromosomal Abnormalities

Examples:

• Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)

• Turner syndrome (XO)

• Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)

Risk increases with advanced maternal age.

Behavioral Genetics

Studies how genes and environment interact to influence behavior.

Research methods include:

• Twin studies

• Adoption studies

• Family studies

Prenatal Development

Germinal Stage (0–2 weeks)

• Fertilization

• Cell division

• Implantation

Embryonic Stage (3–8 weeks)

Most critical stage.

Major developments:

• Heart begins beating

• Brain develops

• Limbs form

• Organs begin forming

Greatest vulnerability to teratogens.

Fetal Stage (9 weeks–Birth)

Rapid growth and maturation.

Major developments:

• Organ systems mature

• Brain growth

• Movement increases

• Senses develop

Teratogens

Environmental agents that harm prenatal development.

Examples:

• Alcohol

• Tobacco

• Drugs

• Certain medications

• Radiation

• Environmental toxins

• Infectious diseases

Effects depend on:

• Timing

• Dose

• Duration

• Genetics

Maternal Factors

Healthy pregnancy includes:

• Good nutrition

• Prenatal vitamins

• Exercise

• Stress reduction

• Prenatal care

• Managing chronic illnesses

Prenatal Assessment

Methods include:

• Ultrasound

• Amniocentesis

• Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

• Maternal blood tests

• Noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT)

Pregnancy Complications

Examples:

• Miscarriage

• Ectopic pregnancy

• Gestational diabetes

• Preeclampsia

• Preterm birth

• Low birth weight

Birth

Stage 1

• Contractions begin.

• Cervix dilates.

Stage 2

• Baby is delivered.

Stage 3

• Placenta is delivered.

Delivery methods:

• Vaginal birth

• Cesarean section

Assessing the Newborn

APGAR Score

Evaluates:

• Appearance

• Pulse

• Grimace

• Activity

• Respiration

Chapter 3: Infancy and Toddlerhood

Physical Development

The first two years are marked by rapid growth.

Typical milestones:

• Birth weight doubles by 4–6 months.

• Birth weight triples by age one.

• Growth slows during the second year.

Brain Development

• Rapid synapse formation

• Myelination

• Experience strengthens neural connections

Infant Sleep

Newborns:

• Sleep 16–18 hours daily.

Safe sleep:

• Back sleeping

• Firm mattress

• No loose bedding

• Room-sharing preferred over bed-sharing

Motor Development

Gross Motor Skills

• Lift head

• Roll over

• Sit

• Crawl

• Walk

Fine Motor Skills

• Reach

• Grasp

• Pincer grasp

• Self-feeding

Development follows:

• Cephalocaudal principle (head to toe)

• Proximodistal principle (center outward)

Sensory Development

Vision

• Blurry at birth

• Improves rapidly

Hearing

• Well developed

• Recognizes voices

Taste & Smell

• Present at birth

• Preference for sweet tastes

• Recognizes mother's scent

Nutrition

Breastfeeding

Benefits:

• Complete nutrition

• Immune protection

• Lower infection rates

• Bonding

Formula

Healthy alternative when breastfeeding is not possible.

Solid Foods

• Begin around six months.

• Introduce foods gradually.

Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage (Birth–2 Years)

Children learn through:

• Sensory experiences

• Motor activity

Major Achievement

Object permanence:

• Understanding objects continue to exist when out of sight.

Memory Development

Implicit Memory

• Automatic memory

• Present early

Explicit Memory

• Conscious recall

• Develops later

Language Development

Typical progression:

• Crying

• Cooing (~2 months)

• Babbling (~6 months)

• First words (~12 months)

• Two-word phrases (18–24 months)

Psychosocial Development

Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust

Infants develop trust when caregivers:

• Respond consistently

• Meet needs

• Provide comfort

• Create predictable routines

Successful resolution develops:

• Hope

• Security

• Confidence

Attachment

Attachment is the emotional bond between infant and caregiver.

Secure Attachment

Caregiver is:

• Responsive

• Consistent

• Sensitive

Child:

• Explores confidently

• Easily comforted

Insecure Attachments

Avoidant

• Ignores caregiver after separation.

Resistant (Ambivalent)

• Highly distressed.

• Difficult to comfort.

Disorganized

• Confused or contradictory behaviors.

Measuring Infant Development

Assessment tools:

• Developmental screenings

• Growth charts

• Reflex testing

• Milestone checklists

Early identification allows timely intervention.

Major Milestones

Birth–3 Months

• Social smile

• Lifts head

• Recognizes caregivers

• Begins cooing

4–6 Months

• Rolls over

• Laughs

• Reaches for objects

• Begins babbling

7–9 Months

• Sits independently

• Crawls

• Stranger anxiety

• Object permanence develops

10–12 Months

• Pulls to stand

• Cruises

• First words

• Waves goodbye

12–24 Months

• Walks independently

• Runs

• Uses simple sentences

• Pretend play

• Greater independence

Major Theories Covered (Chapters 1–3)

Comprehensive Key Terms

Chapter 1

• Lifespan development

• Plasticity

• Cohort

• SES

• Nature vs. nurture

• Continuity

• Discontinuity

• Tabula rasa

• Maturation

• Reinforcement

• Modeling

Chapter 2

• DNA

• Gene

• Chromosome

• Genome

• Genotype

• Phenotype

• Behavioral genetics

• Germinal stage

• Embryonic stage

• Fetal stage

• Teratogen

• Placenta

• Ultrasound

• Amniocentesis

• CVS

• APGAR

Chapter 3

• Cephalocaudal

• Proximodistal

• Gross motor skills

• Fine motor skills

• Sensorimotor stage

• Object permanence

• Implicit memory

• Explicit memory

• Trust vs. mistrust

• Attachment

• Secure attachment

• Insecure-avoidant

• Insecure-resistant

• Disorganized attachment

• Stranger anxiety

• Separation anxiety

High-Yield Exam Topics

• Baltes' six principles of lifespan development

• Four developmental issues (nature vs. nurture, continuity vs. discontinuity, active vs. passive, stability vs. change)

• Major developmental theories and theorists

• Genotype vs. phenotype

• Three stages of prenatal development

• Teratogens and maternal health

• Stages of labor and the APGAR assessment

• Infant physical, cognitive, language, and motor development

• Piaget's sensorimotor stage and object permanence

• Erikson's trust vs. mistrust stage

• Bowlby and Ainsworth's attachment theory and attachment styles

• Major developmental milestones from birth through age two

Comprehensive Key Terms Chapter 1 - Lifespan development - Plasticity - Cohort - SES - Nature vs. nurture - Continuity - Discontinuity - Tabula rasa - Maturation - Reinforcement - Modeling Chapter 2 - DNA - Gene - Chromosome - Genome - Genotype - Phenotype - Behavioral genetics - Germinal stage - Embryonic stage - Fetal stage - Teratogen - Placenta - Ultrasound - Amniocentesis - CVS - APGAR Chapter 3 - Cephalocaudal - Proximodistal - Gross motor skills - Fine motor skills - Sensorimotor stage - Object permanence - Implicit memory - Explicit memory - Trust vs. mistrust - Attachment - Secure attachment - Insecure-avoidant - Insecure-resistant - Disorganized attachment - Stranger anxiety - Separation anxiety

create definitions from the book

Below are concise, textbook-based definitions for the key terms from Chapters 1–3 of Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective (4th ed.). These are written in study-guide format to help prepare for quizzes and exams.

Chapter 1 Definitions

Lifespan Development

The scientific study of human growth, change, and stability from conception until death.

Plasticity

The ability of individuals to change and adapt throughout life due to experience and environmental influences.

Cohort

A group of people born during the same historical period who experience similar cultural and historical events.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

A person's or family's social position based on income, education, and occupation.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate over whether development is primarily influenced by genetics (nature) or environmental experiences (nurture). Most psychologists agree both interact.

Continuity

The view that development occurs gradually through small, continuous changes over time.

Discontinuity

The view that development occurs through distinct stages with qualitative changes.

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's concept that children are born as a "blank slate," and experience shapes development.

Maturation

The natural biological process of growth directed largely by genetics.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood a behavior will occur again.

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others.

Chapter 2 Definitions

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

The molecule that contains the genetic instructions for growth, development, and functioning.

Gene

The basic unit of heredity made of DNA that influences specific traits.

Chromosome

A threadlike structure containing DNA and genes. Humans normally have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.

Genome

The complete set of an individual's genetic material.

Genotype

A person's unique genetic makeup.

Phenotype

The observable physical and behavioral characteristics produced by the interaction of genes and the environment.

Behavioral Genetics

The study of how heredity and environment influence behavior and development.

Germinal Stage

The first stage of prenatal development (conception to about two weeks), during which fertilization, rapid cell division, and implantation occur.

Embryonic Stage

The second stage of prenatal development (weeks 3–8), when major organs and body systems begin forming.

Fetal Stage

The final stage of prenatal development (week 9 until birth), characterized by rapid growth and maturation of body systems.

Teratogen

Any environmental substance or condition that can interfere with normal prenatal development and cause birth defects.

Placenta

A temporary organ that supplies oxygen and nutrients to the fetus while removing waste products.

Ultrasound

A prenatal imaging technique that uses sound waves to create pictures of the developing fetus.

Amniocentesis

A prenatal diagnostic test in which amniotic fluid is removed to detect genetic or chromosomal abnormalities.

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

A prenatal test that collects placental tissue to identify genetic disorders early in pregnancy.

APGAR Score

A quick assessment of a newborn's health performed shortly after birth that measures Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration.

Chapter 3 Definitions

Cephalocaudal Principle

The pattern of physical development that proceeds from the head downward to the feet.

Proximodistal Principle

The pattern of physical development that proceeds from the center of the body outward toward the extremities.

Gross Motor Skills

Large muscle movements such as sitting, crawling, standing, walking, and running.

Fine Motor Skills

Small muscle movements involving the hands and fingers, such as grasping objects, feeding oneself, and writing.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development (birth to about age 2), during which infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory for skills, habits, and conditioned responses.

Explicit Memory

Conscious memory involving the recall of facts, events, and experiences.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first psychosocial stage, in which infants develop trust when caregivers consistently meet their needs.

Attachment

The strong emotional bond that develops between an infant and caregiver, providing security and support.

Secure Attachment

An attachment style in which infants use caregivers as a secure base, become distressed when separated, and are comforted when reunited.

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

An attachment style in which infants show little distress during separation and avoid or ignore the caregiver upon reunion.

Insecure-Resistant (Ambivalent) Attachment

An attachment style in which infants become very distressed during separation but remain difficult to comfort when the caregiver returns.

Disorganized Attachment

An attachment style characterized by inconsistent, fearful, or confused behaviors toward the caregiver.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear or distress shown by infants when approached by unfamiliar people, typically emerging around 6–8 months.

Separation Anxiety

Distress experienced when an infant is separated from a primary caregiver, typically beginning around 8–12 months.

Most Important Terms to Memorize

If you're short on study time, focus on these high-yield terms:

• Lifespan Development

• Plasticity

• Nature vs. Nurture

• Continuity vs. Discontinuity

• Tabula Rasa

• Maturation

• Genotype vs. Phenotype

• Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Stages

• Teratogen

• APGAR Score

• Cephalocaudal Principle

• Proximodistal Principle

• Sensorimotor Stage

• Object Permanence

• Trust vs. Mistrust

• Attachment

• Secure vs. Insecure Attachment Styles

Chapter 4: Early Childhood

Synaptic Pruning

The elimination of unused neural connections to improve brain efficiency.

Myelination

The development of the protective covering around nerve fibers that speeds communication.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's stage (ages 2–7) characterized by symbolic thinking and limited logical reasoning.

Symbolic Thought

Using words or objects to represent other things.

Egocentrism

Difficulty understanding another person's perspective.

Centration

Focusing on one aspect of a situation while ignoring others.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance.

Private Speech

Children talking to themselves to guide thinking and behavior.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The difference between what a child can do independently and with assistance.

Scaffolding

Temporary support that helps children learn new skills.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson's stage in which children develop confidence by initiating activities.

Authoritative Parenting

High warmth and high expectations.

Authoritarian Parenting

Low warmth and high control.

Permissive Parenting

High warmth and low control.

Uninvolved Parenting

Low warmth and low control.

Functional Play

Simple repetitive movements using objects.

Constructive Play

Using materials to build or create something.

Pretend (Symbolic) Play

Imaginative role-playing.

Cooperative Play

Children playing together toward a common goal.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A neurodevelopmental disorder affecting communication, social interaction, and behavior.

Chapter 5: Middle and Late Childhood

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's stage (ages 7–11) in which children think logically about concrete events.

Classification

Organizing objects into categories.

Seriation

Arranging objects in a logical order.

Reversibility

Understanding that actions can be mentally reversed.

Intelligence

The ability to reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A standardized score estimating intellectual functioning.

Standardization

Administering a test consistently to compare scores.

Reliability

The consistency of a test's results.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure.

Dyslexia

A learning disability affecting reading.

Dysgraphia

A learning disability affecting writing.

Dyscalculia

A learning disability affecting mathematics.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's stage in which children develop competence through achievement.

Peer Acceptance

The degree to which a child is liked by peers.

Self-Esteem

A person's overall sense of self-worth.