Modernist Literature Notes

The Other Two by Edith Wharton

• Plot Summary

  • Mr. Waythorn marries Alice, who has been married twice before.
  • Waythorn is confident initially but is challenged when Alice's ex-husbands, Mr. Haskett and Mr. Varick, re-enter her life.
  • Waythorn confronts the reality of Alice's past and his place in her life, realizing modern remarriages involve dealing with past relationships.
  • The story concludes with Waythorn's strained acceptance of his wife's ex-husbands.

• Significance of the Title

  • "The Other Two" refers not only to the ex-husbands but also to the lingering presence of past relationships in the present.
  • Wharton challenges the idea of marriage as a fresh start, showing how the past influences current identities and roles.
  • Waythorn must accept his wife's past, reassessing his pride and social status.

• Purpose

  • Wharton critiques modern marriage and explores the compromises required in upper-class life.
  • She examines social flexibility, gender expectations, and how personal identity is affected by societal changes, achieved by placing Waythorn in a situation that challenges his dominance.

• Major Themes

  • Marriage and Modernity: Modern marriages involve negotiating past relationships instead of dominating them.
  • Masculine Insecurity: Waythorn's unease shows the fragility of male ego when a woman has her own history.
  • Social Status and Respectability: Marriage is used to improve or maintain social standing, with each character representing a different class level.
  • The Influence of the Past: Past experiences and relationships continue to impact current relationships.
  • Female Adaptability: Alice pragmatically navigates different marriages, demonstrating a multi-faceted view of female agency.

• Connection to the Realistic Period

  • Definition of Realistic Period: American literature (post-Civil War to early 20th century) focused on everyday life and complex characters.
  • How it applies to The Other Two:
    • Ordinary Characters: Waythorn is a typical man dealing with remarriage issues.
    • Psychological Depth: Wharton explores Waythorn's internal struggles with Alice's past.
    • Social Commentary: The story critiques rigid gender roles and upper-class constraints.
    • Objective Reality: The story presents an uncomfortable view of modern domestic life without idealization.
  • Example in the Story: Interactions between Waythorn, Haskett, and Varick show the awkwardness of divorced and remarried social dynamics.
  • The tea scene demonstrates understated realism with quiet discomfort and forced politeness.

The Open Boat by Stephen Crane

• Plot Summary

  • Four shipwreck survivors—a correspondent, an oiler (Billie), a cook, and an injured captain—are adrift at sea in a dinghy.
  • They struggle against exhaustion, hunger, and rough waves, hoping to reach land, but their hopes are repeatedly dashed.
  • Despite their efforts, the oiler dies, highlighting nature's indifference and the randomness of survival.

• Significance

  • Represents Naturalism, where humans are controlled by forces beyond their control.
  • Crane rejects romantic ideals, showing brutal realism instead.
  • The oiler's death shows survival is not based on strength or morality but on nature's random indifference.

• Purpose

  • Crane aims to demonstrate the futility of human effort against nature and to challenge the view of humans as central to the universe.
  • By focusing on the shared humanity and existential uncertainty, Crane challenges readers to face harsh realities where survival is not guaranteed.

• Major Themes

  • Nature's Indifference:
    • Nature is powerful and does not care about human suffering.
    • Billie's death emphasizes the randomness of survival.
  • Fate vs. Free Will:
    • The men try to control their fate but are limited by external forces.
    • Free will is restricted by environment, biology, and chance.
  • Brotherhood and Human Solidarity:
    • The men develop a bond for emotional strength.
    • Cooperation is the only comfort in a meaningless situation.
  • Survival and Existentialism:
    • The arbitrariness of life and death prompts reflection on life's meaning.
    • The correspondent gains philosophical understanding of human vulnerability.

• Bedford Glossary Term: Naturalism

  • Definition: Naturalism evolved from realism, emphasizing a deterministic view of human life where characters are subject to forces beyond their control.
  • Key Elements of Naturalism in The Open Boat:
    • Determinism: The men are at nature's mercy.
    • Scientific/Objective Tone: The narrator describes suffering and survival in a detached manner.
    • Lack of Divine Intervention: There is no higher power involved.
  • Example from the Story:
    • The quote "When it occurs to a man that nature does not regard him as important…" illustrates nature's indifference to human life.

The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde – The Preface

• Wilde's Views on Art

  • The Preface outlines Wilde's aesthetic views, stating art's value lies solely in its beauty, not moral lessons.
  • Wilde believes that people finding immoral meanings in art reveal their own corruption.
  • He contends that are no moral/immoral books, just well/bad written ones.
  • Art has no use.

• Key Takeaways from the Preface

  • Art for art’s sake: Beauty is art's primary goal
  • Artists should not be judged by their art's morality.
  • Looking too deeply into art's meanings can be dangerous.

• What Is Aestheticism?

  • Definition: A 19th-century movement focused on creating beauty, not moral lessons.
  • Core Beliefs:
    • Art is judged by beauty, not moral teachings.
    • Artists should not be expected to promote good behavior.
    • Sensuality, pleasure, and elegance are celebrated.
  • Key Figure: Oscar Wilde, who lived and wrote by its principles.

• What Is Fin de Siècle?

  • Definition: "End of the century"—a cultural mood of the late 1800s.
  • Characteristics:
    • Pessimism, decadence, and disillusionment with old values.
    • Interest in taboo topics like death and sex.
    • Fascination with beauty, destruction, and transformation.
  • In Literature: Works questioned tradition, explored excess, and moral ambiguity.
  • Example: The Picture of Dorian Gray, a classic fin de siècle novel.

• Big Questions Raised by the Preface

  • Can art be separated from morality? (Wilde says yes)
  • Is beauty dangerous? (The novel suggests it can be destructive)
  • Does Wilde contradict himself? (Possibly intentionally)
  • What's the audience's role? (Meaning comes from the viewer's experiences)

• Context: Wilde’s Life and Controversy

  • Wilde was imprisoned for homosexuality.
  • His life mirrored his art: beautiful and rebellious, but punished.
  • Dorian Gray is often seen as reflecting Wilde's own struggles with desire and morality.

• Important Quotes from the Preface

  • "There is no such thing as a moral or an immoral book." (Judge books by writing quality, not morality.)
  • "All art is quite useless." (Art's beauty is its only purpose.)
  • "The artist is the creator of beautiful things." (Art is about beauty.)

The White Man’s Burden by Rudyard Kipling

• Summary

  • Kipling's poem (1899) supported U.S. imperialism, encouraging America to colonize the Philippines.
  • Presents imperialism as a noble duty to civilize "lesser" peoples.

• Key Ideas

  • Imperialism as Duty: The “White Man’s Burden” is the obligation to rule and uplift non-white populations.
  • Racist Undertones: Non-Europeans are seen as inferior and needing guidance.
  • Justifying Empire: Empire is portrayed as a difficult moral mission, not for wealth or power.

• Important Lines

  • “Take up the White Man’s burden—/ Send forth the best ye breed.” (Colonize to help others.)
  • “Your new-caught, sullen peoples, / Half-devil and half-child.” (Colonized people are immature and backward.)

• Historical Context

  • Written during the peak of imperialism.
  • Reflects British and American colonial attitudes.

• Why It Matters

  • Illustrates the mindset of empire as a moral duty, not exploitation.

Hind Swaraj by Mohandas Gandhi

• Summary

  • Gandhi's Hind Swaraj (1909) criticizes British colonialism for reshaping Indian society and values.
  • He advocates for Swaraj (self-rule) and nonviolent resistance.

• Key Ideas

  • Chapter IX: Railways
    • Gandhi criticizes railways, a symbol of progress.
    • Railways spread disease, enable resource exploitation, and break down village life.
    • Modernization weakens Indian values and increases dependence on empire.
  • Chapter XVII: Passive Resistance
    • Gandhi promotes Satyagraha (truth-force), a nonviolent method of resistance.
    • Violence degrades both sides.
    • True resistance comes through moral strength.
    • India should win independence without imitating British systems.

• Important Quotes

  • “Railways have impoverished the country.” (Technology helps the British exploit India.)
  • “Passive resistance is a method of securing rights by personal suffering.” (Freedom comes through peaceful protest.)
  • “We must refuse to cooperate with the English.” (Reject colonial systems for true independence.)

• Comparison: Kipling vs. Gandhi

  • View on Imperialism: Kipling supports it while Gandhi opposes it as destructive.
  • Colonized Peoples: Kipling sees them as inferior, while Gandhi views them as capable.
  • Modernization: Kipling sees it as positive, Gandhi as harmful.
  • Resistance: Kipling doesn't discuss it, Gandhi advocates for nonviolent resistance.
  • Morality of Empire: Kipling sees it as good for the world, Gandhi as corrupt.

“Leda and the Swan” (Yeats)

• Summary

  • The sonnet retells the myth of Zeus raping Leda, leading to the Trojan War.

• Key Themes

  • Power & Violence: Zeus overpowers Leda, a metaphor for domination.
  • Sexual Trauma: Leda is left shocked and powerless.
  • Fate & History: The rape starts a chain of destructive events.
  • Knowledge vs. Helplessness: Did Leda gain insight or remain a victim?

• Key Lines

  • “A sudden blow… he holds her helpless” (Leda is attacked without warning.)
  • “A shudder in the loins engenders there / The broken wall…” (Rape leads to war.)
  • “Did she put on his knowledge with his power?” (Did she gain divine insight?)

• Context

  • Aligns with the course theme “Mating with a Mortal”—exploring divine-mortal sexual violence.
  • Yeats uses myth to explore historical cycles.

• Modernist Traits

  • Myth used to understand the present
  • Ambiguity and fragmentation
  • Themes of violence and disillusionment

“The Second Coming” (Yeats)

• Summary

  • Written after WWI, the poem captures a world falling into chaos; a “rough beast” is coming instead of Christ.

• Key Themes

  • Chaos and Collapse: “Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold” reflects a broken world.
  • Loss of Morality: “The best lack all conviction” means good people are passive while evil is active.
  • Dreadful Rebirth: A new age is being born, symbolized by a beast.

• Key Lines

  • “The falcon cannot hear the falconer” (People have lost guiding principles.)
  • “A shape with lion body and the head of a man…” (A creature is about to change history.)
  • “What rough beast… slouches toward Bethlehem to be born?” (Something monstrous is arriving instead of a savior.)

• Context

  • Reflects postwar disillusionment.
  • Written during the rise of fascism, sensing something dangerous was replacing old systems.

• Modernist Traits

  • Apocalyptic imagery
  • Ambiguity and symbolism
  • Loss of belief in progress
  • Historical pessimism

“Easter, 1916” (Yeats)

• Summary

  • Yeats reflects on the failed Easter Rising in Ireland.

• Key Themes

  • Ordinary to Heroic: Rebels transform into national martyrs.
  • Sacrifice & Transformation: “A terrible beauty is born” captures inspiring and awful deaths.
  • Conflict Over Meaning: Were their deaths “needless” or necessary?
  • Legacy: He immortalizes them by connecting their sacrifice to independence.

• Key Lines

  • “All changed, changed utterly: A terrible beauty is born.” (The rebellion has transformed Ireland.)
  • “Was it needless death after all?” (Did the uprising achieve anything?)
  • “Wherever green is worn…” (Their memory lives on.)

• Context

  • Yeats was conflicted because he disliked some of the rebels.
  • Reflects Ireland’s struggle for independence.

• Modernist Traits

  • Ambivalence and moral complexity
  • Focus on inner conflict
  • Real-world event as poetry
  • Transformation through trauma

Comparison Table (Yeats's Poems)

The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. Eliot

• Summary

  • Eliot's poem explores a man paralyzed by self-doubt, social anxiety, and fear of judgment.
  • Prufrock reflects on his inability to act, using stream-of-consciousness and imagery to portray his alienation, with allusions to Dante, Shakespeare, and the Bible.
  • Embodies the modern individual—educated, self-aware, but unable to act in a world stripped of clear meaning or moral certainty.

• Modernist Elements

  • Stream of Consciousness: Captures Prufrock’s disjointed thoughts.
  • Alienation: Prufrock feels disconnected and isolated.
  • Fragmentation: Lacks linear plot, moving between memory and fantasy.
  • Ambiguity: Meaning is open to interpretation.
  • Cultural Allusions: References Dante, Hamlet, Lazarus, and Michelangelo.
  • Disillusionment: Futility pervades Prufrock’s reflections.

A Room of One’s Own by Virginia Woolf

• Context

  • Woolf argues women's exclusion from education and financial independence has prevented them from achieving literary greatness.
  • She uses Judith Shakespeare, William's imagined sister, to illustrate this.
  • Written in 1929, urging women to seize emerging opportunities.

• Key Themes & Ideas

  • The Tragedy of Lost Potential: Judith Shakespeare
    • Denied the chance to succeed, symbolizing many silenced women.
  • Chastity, Anonymity, and Psychological Strain
    • Women’s creativity was stifled by social expectations.
    • Anonymity was self-protection; writers used male pseudonyms to be taken seriously.
  • The State of Mind Needed for Creation
    • Genius needs quiet, money, and freedom.
    • Shakespeare had more opportunities than women.
  • Material and Immaterial Barriers
    • Material: Lack of space, privacy, or financial independence.
    • Immaterial: Social hostility and shame.
  • The Weight of History & the Need for Progress
    • Woolf challenges young women to build on gains rather than dwell on the past.

• The Call to Action: Rebirth of Judith Shakespeare

  • Judith Shakespeare lives on in the modern woman.
  • Women must continue fighting for freedom so the silenced poet can return.

• Important Quotations

  • “Chastity may be a fetish… but were none the less inevitable.”
  • “Anonymity runs in their blood. The desire to be veiled still possesses them.”
  • “The world said with a guffaw, Write? What’s the good of your writing?”
  • “She lives in you and in me… for great poets do not die; they are continuing presences…”
  • “If we live another century or so… the opportunity will come and the dead poet… will be born.”

• Why It Matters

  • Woolf's argument transforms from diagnosis to inspiration.
  • Change is possible through deliberate effort.
  • It's not just a lament, but a vision of liberation.

The New Dress by Virginia Woolf

• Plot Summary

  • Mabel Waring attends a party and is overwhelmed by anxiety about her yellow dress.
  • She feels insecure and ashamed, imagining ridicule.
  • She reflects on her upbringing, feeling she doesn't belong.
  • The mirror becomes a symbol of self-doubt.
  • Interactions with guests isolate her further.
  • She daydreams about transformation but leaves feeling like a failure, telling herself she enjoyed the party to mask her true emotions.

• Significant Symbols & Details

  • The Yellow Dress: Symbolizes Mabel’s desire for dignity and failure to conform.
  • The Mirror: Reflects her fractured self-image.
  • The Flies and the Saucer: Represents her struggle to rise above insecurities and class status.

• Family and Class

  • Her working-class family haunts her sense of identity.

• Characters

  • Mabel Waring: Emotionally fragile, riddled with self-doubt.
  • Mrs. Dalloway: Represents social success.
  • Rose Shaw: Embodies effortless grace, making Mabel feel inadequate.
  • Miss Milan: The dressmaker, symbolizing a connection that contrasts the part's coldness.

• Why It Matters

  • Explores social anxiety and the female psyche through stream of consciousness.
  • Critiques society’s focus on appearance over authenticity.

• Narrative Technique: Stream of Consciousness

  • Definition: Captures the flow of a character’s thoughts and feelings.
  • Key Characteristics:
    • Unfiltered thoughts
    • Fragmentation
    • Free association
    • Minimal punctuation
    • Subjectivity
  • Excerpt from Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway exemplifies this.

The Dead by James Joyce

• Plot Summary
  • Set in Dublin during a Christmas party hosted by the Morkan sisters, focuses on Gabriel Conroy and his wife, Gretta.
  • Gabriel attends the party and is anxious about how others see him and is labeled a