AP Human Geography Unit 4 Review Notes

State vs. Nation

  • State: A geographic area with:
    • Permanent population
    • Defined borders
    • Sovereign government (control over domestic and international affairs)
    • Recognition by other states
  • Nation: A group of people with:
    • Shared culture
    • Shared history
    • Shared homeland
    • Desire to govern themselves
    • Self-determination: The right or desire to self-govern.
  • A state references the government and land, while a nation references a group of people with a shared culture and history.

Types of Political Entities

  • Nation-State:
    • Self-governing state with a relatively uniform population.
    • Common language, culture, and history.
    • Strong national identity and social cohesion.
    • Examples: Japan, Iceland, South Korea
  • Multinational State:
    • Multiple nations within its borders.
    • Various ethnic, linguistic, or cultural groups.
    • A dominant cultural group often controls the state.
    • Example: Canada (English and French linguistic groups)
  • Multi-State Nation:
    • A nation that exists across multiple states.
    • Examples: Kurdish population (Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc.), Basques (Spain and France)
  • Stateless Nation:
    • A nation with a history of self-determination but no officially recognized state.
    • Lacks control over political boundaries, a sovereign government, control over internal/external affairs, and recognition from other states.
    • Examples: Kurds, Basques
  • Autonomous Region:
    • Located within a state with a certain level of independence.
    • Own government with self-rule.
    • The state has limited involvement.
    • Example: Native American reservations in the United States
  • Semi-Autonomous Region:
    • Controlled by another state but granted a moderate degree of self-governance.
    • Some control over internal affairs, but the controlling state retains authority to intervene.
    • Example: Hong Kong (subject to China's central government)

Colonialism and Imperialism

  • Colonialism: Acquiring territories and settling there to exert political, economic, and social control.
  • Imperialism: Growing a state or empire by exerting force over other nations to gain economic and political power without establishing settlements.
  • Colonialism and imperialism led to:
    • Diffusion of religions, languages, cultures, resources, people, and ideas.
    • Imposition of the colonizer's culture on the colonized population.
    • Establishment of political boundaries favoring colonial rulers (e.g., Berlin Conference in Africa).

Decolonization

  • Colonies break away from colonial rulers to become independent states.
  • Occurred primarily after World War II (e.g., in Africa).
  • Newly independent states often continued to depend on former colonial rulers.
  • Conflicts arose over land, resources, and political power due to colonial boundaries.

Devolution

  • Transfer of political power from a central government to a regional government.
    • Creation of new regional governments (e.g., Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly in the UK).
    • Transfer of specific responsibilities to subnational governments.

Political Power and Territoriality

  • Territoriality: Establishing and defending a specific geographic area.
    • Involves using space to indicate ownership or occupation.
    • Examples: Non-verbal communication, control of boundaries, military interventions, promotion of political/economic systems, regulation of activities.

Neocolonialism

  • Indirect use of political, cultural, or economic power to influence or control another country.
    • Exploitation of weaker countries for resources and wealth by dominant countries or companies.
    • Multinational companies exploiting low-cost labor markets or seeking regions with low regulations/taxes.
    • China's investments in African infrastructure, resulting in debt and political influence.

Shatter Belts

  • Regions where countries or people are subject to political, cultural, and economic pressure from conflicting external powers.
    • Creates instability and uncertainty.
    • Examples: Eastern Europe during the Cold War, Korean War.

Choke Points

  • Geographic areas that have to be passed to reach a destination.
    • Countries exert influence by stationing military forces, investing in infrastructure, or creating treaties.
    • Examples: Panama Canal, Strait of Hormuz, Suez Canal.

Political Boundaries

  • Defining: Boundary line is agreed upon and set.
  • Delimiting: Boundary line is drawn on a map.
  • Demarcating: Boundary is marked with physical markers.

Types of Boundaries

  • Geometric Boundary: Uses straight lines and follows latitude/longitude (e.g., 49th parallel between Canada and the US).
  • Antecedent Boundary: Existed before human settlement or the creation of the cultural landscape (e.g., boundary between Argentina and Chile formed by a mountain range).
  • Relic Boundary: No longer officially recognized but still affects the cultural landscape (e.g., Berlin Wall).
  • Superimposed Boundary: Created by an external power without considering local communities (e.g., Berlin Conference boundaries in Africa).
  • Subsequent Boundary: Develops along with the development of the cultural landscape (e.g., the majority of Europe's boundaries).
  • Consequent Boundary: Created to separate various ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups (e.g., the border between Pakistan and India).

Failed State

  • A geographic area where no state has direct power or control.

Functions of Boundaries

  • International Boundaries: Separate sovereign states.
  • Internal Boundaries: Separate regions within a single state.

Boundary Disputes

  • Definitional Boundary Disputes: Occur over the interpretation of original documents.
  • Locational Boundary Disputes: Occur over the location of the boundary and land ownership.
  • Operational Boundary Disputes: Occur when countries have different ideas on how to manage a boundary (e.g., India and Pakistan over the Line of Control in Kashmir).
  • Allocational Boundary Disputes: Occur over the use of resources on or in the boundary.

UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)

  • International Law of the Sea (1982):
    • Territorial Waters: Extends 12 nautical miles from shore; states regulate passage by ships.
    • Contiguous Zone: Between 12 and 24 nautical miles; states enforce laws concerning pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration.
    • Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Between 24 and 200 nautical miles; states have sole right to natural resources.
    • After 200 nautical miles, you're in international waters, and no state has direct control.
    • Disputes are taken to the International Court of Justice.

Internal Boundaries and Redistricting

  • Examples: US congressional districts, county boundaries, city boundaries, school districts, voting districts.
  • Redistricting: Redrawing districts after the census to reflect population changes.
  • Gerrymandering: Redistricting to favor one political party over another.
    • Cracking: Spreading like-minded voters across many districts.
    • Packing: Stacking like-minded voters into just a few districts.

Forms of Governance

  • Unitary States:
    • Power is concentrated at the national level.
    • Strong sense of national identity.
    • May not address local needs efficiently.
  • Federal States:
    • Power is distributed between the national government and regional governments.
    • Allows states to respond to local issues and cater to minority groups.
    • May take longer to implement policy changes.

Devolution Factors

  • Physical geography.
  • Cultural divisions (ethnic groups with a history of self-determination, ethnic separatism).
    • Examples: Basques, Catalans, Kurds, Nigeria.
  • Political instability.
  • Economic and social divisions.
  • Government corruption and abuse.
  • Irredentism (movement to unite parts of a nation located in another state's boundaries).

Challenges to State Sovereignty

  • Technological advancements (internet, social media).
  • Globalization.
  • Supranational organizations: Alliances of multiple countries working together for common goals.
    • Political (e.g., United Nations, African Union, NATO).
    • Economic (e.g., European Union, ASEAN).
    • Environmental (e.g., Arctic Council).
    • Membership requires abiding by the organization's rules, surrendering some autonomy and sovereignty.

Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces

  • Centrifugal Forces: Divide people, a state, or a group.
    • Uneven economic and social development.
    • Cultural differences.
    • Political corruption.
    • Can lead to a failed state.
    • Ethnic nationalist movements.
  • Centripetal Forces: Unite people, a state, or a group.
    • Patriotism.
    • Economic and social opportunities.
    • Lack of corruption and discrimination.
    • Shared history, language, and religion.
    • Strong national government.