Biopsychology

Biopsychology: Explores the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior.

Chromosome: long strand of genetic information known as DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

Gene: sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics known as traits (eye color, hair color etc).

Alleles: Multiple possible variations of a specific version of a gene. This can be dominant or recessive.

Dominant Alleles: It will always result in expression of that phenotype. It masks the other type of allele. This could be inherited from one parent (Aa) or both parents (AA)

Recessive Alleles: It will only be physically expressed if the person is homozygous for that allele, meaning they inherited a recessive allele from BOTH parents (aa)

Punnett Squares: Is a tool used to predict how genes will interact in the production of offspring

Mutations: Sudden, permanent change in a gene. Some are harmful, some are beneficial and some can be both.

Range of reaction: The way in which our genes react to with our environment. Our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall. Ex. Identical twins raised in vastly different environments could show significant differences in academic performance despite having the same genes

Genetic environmental correlation: people behave in ways influenced by their genetic background, which affects exposure to a range of environmental risks. I.e. genes for “sensation seeking” contribute to the development of substance use disorder

Epigenetics: The study of how environmental and lifestyle factors can alter gene expression without changing DNA. Ex. A muscle cell has a structure that aids in your body's ability to move. Epigenetics allows the muscle cell to turn on genes to make proteins important for its job and turn off genes important for a nerve cell's job

Neuroscience: Interdisciplinary field studying how biological processes relate to behavioral & mental processes

Cells in the Nervous system: Glial and Neurons

Glial: Provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation(via Axon) and communication and nutrient and waste transport.

Neurons: The Cells responsible for receiving and transmitting electrochemical information

Synapse: The space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron.

Resting Potential (Neural Communication): Sodium (Na+) is more highly concentrated outside the cell in the extracellular fluid, whereas potassium (K+) is more highly concentrated inside the cell. While other molecules contribute to a positive net charge in the extracellular fluid and a negative net charge in the intracellular fluid.

Action Potential (Neural Communication): An electrical signal that acts on an all-or-none principle - the incoming signal is either sufficient to reach the threshold of excitation or it is not.

Depolarization: Membrane potential becomes less negative making the neuron more likely to fire (excitation)

Hyperpolarization: Membrane potential becomes more negative making the neuron less likely to fire (inhibition).

Threshold of excitation: Level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active and perform action potential.

Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger of the nervous system. Different neurons release different types of neurotransmitters that have MANY different functions.

Receptor: Chemical structures round on the dendrites that receive information from other neurons

Receptors and neurotransmitters act like a lock-and-key system. Just as it takes the right key to open a specific lock, a neurotransmitter (the key) will only bind to a specific receptor (the lock). If the neurotransmitter is able to work on the receptor site, it triggers changes in the receiving cell.

Reuptake: moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon terminal from which it was released if it has been leftover from action potential.

Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA): special because it’s the only neurotransmitter to have ONLY inhibitory effects by decreasing the ability of a neuron to respond to, create or send messages to other neurons

Acetylcholine: involved in muscle action and memory

Beta-endorphin: the natural painkillers

Dopamine: involved in the regulation of mood, sleep, and learning.

Norepinephrine: Basic bodily processes including cardiovascular, digestive, etc... It is a form of adrenaline...

Serotonin: very important for regulating mood and sleep

Psychotropic medication - drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance
Agonist: drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist: drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter

The nervous is divided into two parts: Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral nervous System: Made of millions of nerves that span across the entire body.

Somatic: Transmits sensory and motor signals to and from the central nervous system.

  • Consists of motor and sensory neurons.

  • Motor Neurons: Carry instructions from the CNS to the muscles/efferent fibers. EXIT

  • Sensory Neurons: Carrying sensory info to the CNS/afferent fibers, ARRIVE

  • Each nerve is a bundle of neurons forming a two way superhighway, containing thousands of axons, both efferent and afferent.

Autonomic: Controls the function of our organs and can be divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

  • Sympathetic: Prepares us for fight or flight. Part of the Autonomic .

  • Parasympathetic: Associated with normal functioning under relaxed conditions. Rest and restores body back to original state after fight or flight.

Central Nervous System

Central Nervous System: Made up of the brain and spinal cord.

Brain: Can be divided into different lobes but all areas interact with each other. It’s Two sided. Comprised of interconnected neurons and glia.

Spinal Cord -

  • Delivers messages to and from the brain.

  • Has its own system of reflexes.

  • The top merges with the brain stem and the bottom ends just below the ribs

  • Functionally organized into 30 segments, each connected to a specific part of the body through the PNS.

  • Sensory nerves bring messages in and up to the brain; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs.

  • In moments of survival, automatic reflexes allow motor commands to be initiated without sending signals from sensory nerves to the brain first, allowing for very quick reactions.

Lateralization: concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body

Corpus Callosum: a structure in the brain that connects the left and right hemispheres, allowing them to communicate and coordinate functions

Forebrain - Largest Part of the Brain

Thalamus: The relay center of the brain where most senses (excluding smell) are routed before being directed to other areas of the brain for processing

Cerebral Cortex: surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language and memory

  • It can be broken up into four lobes, each with a different function.

Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostatic processes including body temperature, appetite and blood pressure

Pituitary Gland: The Master Gland - Controlling the secretions of all other glands

Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland help to control: growth, blood pressure, energy management, all functions of the sex organs, the thyroid gland, metabolism, as well as some aspects of pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding, water/salt concentration at the kidneys, temperature regulation, and pain relief!

  • The Hypothalamus links the nervous system and endocrine system by controlling the pituitary gland

Limbic System: Involved in mediating emotional response and memory.

  • Amygdala: involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories. Involved in processing fear

  • Hippocampus: structure associated with learning and memory (in particular spatial memory)

  • Hypothalamus: regulates homeostatic processes including body temperature, appetite and blood pressure

The Endocrine System

Pituitary gland

  • serves as the master gland, controlling the secretions of all other glands

Thyroid

  • secretes Thyroxine which regulates growth, metabolism and appetite

Adrenal gland

  • secretes hormones involved in the stress response

Gonads

  • secretes sex hormones, which are important for successful reproduction, and regulate sexual motivation and behavior

Pancreas

  • secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar (i.e., insulin)

  • structure associated with learning and memory (in particular spatial memory)

The Midbrain

Reticular formation: important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity

Substantia Nigra: where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement

Ventral tegmental area (VTA): where dopamine is produced; associated with mood, reward, and addiction

The Hindbrain

Medulla: controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

Pons: connects the brain and the spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep

Cerebellum: controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) SCAN: Involves x-rays and creates an image through x-rays passing through varied densities within the brain. Can be used to show brain tumors.

POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) SCAN: helpful for showing activity in different parts of the brain by monitoring changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain by injecting a mildly radioactive substance.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): Shows changes in metabolic activity over time

ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG): Involves recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp. Using caps with electrodes, modern research can study the precise timing of overall brain activities by tracking amplitude and frequency of brainwaves