Physics

Physics from ancient Greek meaning “knowledge of nature”

 Physics is the most fundamental branch of science.

 Physics is the study of the behavior and structure of matter , including

 Its motion through time and space, and

 Related concepts such as energy, momentum, and forces.

 Major areas of study in physics include:

 Classical Physics (thru 1900)

 Classical Mechanics

 Thermodynamics

 Electromagnetics

 Modern Physics

 Relativity (Special and General)

 Quantum Mechanics

Physical Quantities have 3 parts

 Number

 Units

 Uncertainty



When you ask someone their age and they respond, “21” we know that they mean 20.5 ± 0.5 years.

Fundamental Quantities in Mechanics

 Time (T)

 The standard SI unit for time is the second (s)

 A second is defined to be “9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation of a cesium-133 atom.”

 Length (L)

 The standard SI unit for length is the meter (m)

 The meter is defined to be “the distance travelled by light in through a vacuum in

1/299,792,456 s” (fixes c = 299,792,456 m/s)

 Mass (M)

 The standard SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg)

…NOT the gram (g) as is commonly used in other sciences such as chemistry

 The kilogram was defined to be the mass of “the International Prototype Kilogram” or

“IPK”, a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the “International Bureau of Weights and

Measures” near Paris.

 40 copies were made and distributed to countries around the world.

 Every kilogram mass is a copy of one of these copies

 As contaminants could coat the kilogram's surface, they made the masses into

cylinders, which have less surface area to acquire dust and debris.

 The mass is stored in filtered laboratory air at constant temperature and pressure

in an environmentally monitored safe in the lower vault. Three independently

controlled keys are required to open the vault.

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 To clean it skilled technicians rub the cylinders with chamois leather dipped in

alcohol.

 As the IPK has been found to vary in mass over time, a new definition based on Planck’s

constant was adopted on May 20, 2019. The kilogram has been redefined as the mass

equivalent to the energy of 1.4755214 × 1040 photons at the frequency of the cesium

atomic clock.

These quantities may be combined into new quantities (derived quantities).

For example, density is defined as mass per volume, and the standard units for density would be kg/m3.

Units

 Units are carried through calculations much like an algebraic variable (x or y).

 7.1 cm + 5.2 cm = 12.3 cm

 5.0 m  3.0 m = 15 m2

 8.40 m  2.0 s = 4.2 m/s

 Numbers can only be summed when the units match.

 If the units are for the same quantity (length, time, mass, etc), then they can be converted

to same unit and then summed.

 For example, You can’t add 1.21 m + 48 cm

 You can, however, convert 1.21 m to 121 cm, and then add 121 cm + 48 cm = 169 cm.

How to convert units will be explained later.

You can detect algebraic errors made when performing

calculations by keeping the units with the numbers.

Metric Multipliers (Prefixes)

 When dealing with very large or very small numbers, it is common

to use scientific notation.

 A further simplification is to use Metric prefixes and multipliers.

 Metric multipliers (prefixes) take the place of the power of ten and

are placed directly in front of the units (becoming a part of the

units).

 1,210,000,000 Watts = 1.21  109 W = 1.21 GW

“1.21 gigawatts”

 0.0357 meters = 3.57  10-2 m = 3.57 cm

“3.57 centimeters”

 1050 g = 1.05  103 g = 1.05 kg (“kilograms”)

The letter used for “micro” is the Greek letter “mu” (μ).

Unit Conversion

 To convert from one set of units to another, simply multiply by “1”.

 First, find a conversion that compares the unit you have with the

units you want (or a series of conversions if needed). For example

 1 year = 365.25 days • 1 day = 24 hours

 1 hour = 60 minutes • 1 minute = 60 seconds

 1 mile = 1609 m • 1 ft = 0.3048 m

 1 inch = 2.54 cm

 Writing a conversion as a ratio gives you “1” (1 day/24 hours = 1)

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Examples

The Gateway Arch in St. Louis is 630 feet tall. How tall is it in meters?

( ) { }

How many seconds are there in a year?

( ) { } { } { } { }

The speed of light is 3.00108 m/s. What is its speed in km/s?

(  ) { } 

A car is moving at 65 mph. How fast is that in m/s?

( ) { } { } { }

Dimensional Analysis

 All the equations in physics are dimensionally consistent (i.e. the units work)

 This can be checked by doing dimensional analysis

 Replace each quantity (both number and unit) with the letter representing the

fundamental quantity (“L” for lengths, “T” for time, and “M” for mass).

 Simplify and combine

Example (with unit conversions): x = 20ft + (25mph)(150s) + (5m/s2)(2.5 min)²

 Are the dimensions consistent? → Dimensional Analysis

As lengths add up to give length, the equation is dimensionally consistent.

 Convert units

 ( ) { }

 Do the math

 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )



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Uncertainty

 No measurement is ever perfect. In many cases, this is due to limitations of equipment.

 The degree of uncertainty in a value can be as important as the value itself.

For example, when a police officer asks how fast you were going, telling him “I was going the speed

limit give or take 1 mile per hour” is likely to be looked upon more favorably than “I was going the

speed limit give or take twenty miles per hour.”

 The majority of the material on uncertainties (including standard deviations, combining

uncertainties, etc.) will be presented in the laboratory session associated with this course (where

measurements are being made).

Accuracy vs. Precision

 Accuracy is a measure of how close the average value of measurements is to a reference value.

 Precision is a measure of how close the measurements are to each other.

Order of Magnitude Estimates

 Order of magnitude estimates are relatively quick and easy to do.

 Performing an order of magnitude estimate provides a check on calculator results (allowing you

to catch errors).

In physics, “calculator operator error” happens much more frequently than you might imagine.

 To make an order of magnitude estimate, replace every number in a calculation with the nearest

power of 10.

 As this tends to logarithmic in nature, rather than rounding up or down at 5, it is best to use a

cutoff near the square root of 10 (3.16) Hint: It’s pretty easy to remember

, 3.14.

 Powers of 10 are only good to 1 significant figure.

Example (Here’s a calculation we did earlier): x = 20ft + (25mph)(150s) + (5m/s2)(2.5 min)²

 After unit conversions we found: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

 Let’s do an order of magnitude estimate!

  10 m  11.173 m/s  10 m/s

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 150 s  100 s  5 m/s2  10 m/s2

 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )



 Let’s note significant figures:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

 Do the math:

 So the answer (to the correct number of significant figures) is 100,000 m.

the order of magnitude estimate combined with the knowledge that the last and largest term was only

good to one significant figure is sufficient to determine that the first two terms are negligible. We only

had to calculate the last term!

Extraneous Note: Enrico Fermi, a Nobel laureate physicist, was a master of making approximations. By

accounting for and combining the errors of his approximations he was able to rapidly make extremely

accurate calculations using only his mind (without the benefit of a calculator nor even paper and

pencil). This is known as “The Fermi Method.”

Mechanics, the study of motion, has two parts

 Kinematics is the mathematical description of motion. (Our starting point)

 Dynamics is the study of the causes of motion (including forces, energy, etc.)

There are 3 types of motion

 Translational motion is moving from one location in space to another.

 Rotational Motion is changing orientation (direction) without necessarily changing location.

 Vibrational Motion is oscillatory motion about an average position.

Translational Kinematics is the Mathematical description of how position changes with time.

 Position is given by three variables, the point (x, y, z).

 We use a specific point in each object (or group of objects) called “the center of mass”.

 All motion can be described as a combination of translation of the center of mass,

rotation about the center of mass, and vibration about the center of mass.

 This allows us to treat each and every object as a point. It doesn’t matter what the

object is.

How to find the center of mass will be discussed later in the semester.

 To determine position we must also have a Reference Frame, a coordinate axis (mathematics)

that is overlaid on top of our reality.

 There is no fixed way to place a reference frame. You may choose the location of the

origin and the directions of the axes. In some cases the origin may even move.

 While all choices of reference frames are equally valid, some choices can greatly simplify

the math needed to solve a problem.

 Each of the position variables must be a function of time.

x = x(t) y = y(t) z = z(t)

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One-Dimensional (1D) Translational Kinematics (simplest case with only x, no y or z)

 x = position at time t, the “current position” for whatever time you prefer (a variable).

 x0 = position at time t=0, the initial position for the reference frame you’ve chosen (a constant).

 When looking at the position of the same object at different times (apart from t=0) we

will use x1, x2, x3, etc. to denote the position at times t1, t2, t3, etc, respectively.

 x = x – x0 = Displacement.

 Displacement is a vector. In 1D motion this just means it has a sign attached (+ or – )

 If x0 is greater than x, x will be negative. (Displacement can be negative)

Position (x) and initial position (x0) are dependent upon your choice of reference

frame. Displacement (

x) is not (at least not until we hit special relativity)

Speed and Velocity (similar but different things)

 The units of speed and velocity are m/s (length per time).

Knowing the units can help identify the quantities in problems.

 Speed (distance) is always positive while velocity (displacement) can be negative.

In NASCAR races the average speed sometimes exceeds 200 mph, but as they return to

their starting position (zero displacement) their average velocity is zero.

( ) ( )

 Usually the word “instantaneous” is dropped. It is the default.

 Instantaneous Speed is also always positive while instantaneous velocity can be negative.

Example: Pat is in a race. Assume the track runs along the x-axis with the finish line marked as x = 0

(exact). During a 3.00 s time interval, Pat’s position changes from x1 = 60.0 m to x2 = 40.5 m. A) What

is Pat’s average velocity during this time? B) If he continues to run with the same average velocity,

how long does it take him to finish the race?

A) x = x2 – x1 = 40.5 m – 60.0 m = -19.5 m

Example: A car travels 274 miles from Dallas to San Antonio in 4.50 hours and then turns around and

drives 81 miles back from San Antonio to Austin in 1.40 hours. Over this full trip from Dallas to

Austin, determine A) the car’s average speed, and B) the magnitude of the car’s average velocity.

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Lecture 1: Supplemental Material

The Scientific Method

 The Goal of Science is Prediction.

 The unknown is dangerous (unpredictable)

 Allows us to make rare events happen (engineering)

 The Scientific Method is a combination of:

 Logic (ancient Greeks)

 Experimentation (alchemists)

 Scientific Methodology

 Observe Nature (i.e. look for patterns)

 Develop Theories

 Theories must fit all observations (where applicable)

 Theories must make testable predictions

 Make Predictions

 Predictions must differ from existing theories.

 Perform experiments (test predictions)

 These experiments must be repeatable

 Experimental results may confirm the theory (in which case experimentation

continues)

 If results don’t confirm the theory, they may be reconciled. This requires:

 Something unaccounted for in the experiment affected the results, and

 When this is accounted for the theory works.

 One experimental result that can’t be reconciled disproves a theory, then either:

 The theory is modified to account for these results (if possible), or

 The theory is discarded and a new theory is sought.

 The more experimentation that a theory survives, the more likely it is to be valid

(over some range of conditions). Theories can NEVER be definitively proven.

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Significant Figures

 In class (outside of the lab) we will use Significant Figures (“Sig Figs”) to account for

uncertainty.

 Digits that are reliably known are “significant figures”. Digits that aren’t reliable are

“insignificant”.

 Numbers are written differently depending upon which digits are significant.

 Trailing zeros with no decimal point are insignificant

 “80”  1 significant figure (the zero is insignificant)

 “80.”  2 significant figures (the zero is significant)

 Zeroes to the right of the decimal point are significant ONLY when they follow a

non-zero digit.

 “80.0”  3 significant figures (the zeroes are insignificant)

 “80.00”  4 significant figures (the zeroes are significant)

 “0.0080”  2 significant figures (the last zero is significant)

 In scientific notation, only significant digits are shown

 “8.0102”  2 significant figures (the zero is significant)

“8.0

102” is the only way to write “800” with 2 significant figures.

 Some numbers are considered exact (having an infinite number of significant figures).

 For example, if I were to count how many students were in a classroom (or any

other number known to be an integer) that number would be exact.

If you have 41 tomatoes, then “41” is exact and has an infinite number of sig figs.



 The inherent uncertainty is ± 5 in the place beyond your last significant digit.

 “80”  80 ± 5 (anything between 75 and 85 not including 85)

 “80.”  80 ± 0.5 (anything between 79.5 and 80.5 not including 80.5)

 “80.0”  80 ± 0.05 (anything between 79.95 and 80.05 not including 80.05)

 “0.0080”  0.008 ± 0.00005 (anything between 0.00795 and 0.00805 not

including 0.00805)

 “8.000102”  800 ± 0.05 (anything between 799.95 and 800.05 not including

800.05)

Examples

“230”  2 significant figures (the zero is insignificant)

 The uncertainty is ± 5 (anything between 225 and 235 not including 235)

“230.02  5 significant figures (both zeroes are significant)

 The uncertainty is ± 0.005 (anything between 230.015 and 230.025 not including

230.025)

“2.3103”  2 significant figures (both digits are significant)

 The uncertainty is ± 50 (anything between 2250 and 2350 not including 2350)

“0.03020”  4 significant figures (the first two zeroes are not significant)

 The uncertainty is ± 0.000005 (anything between 0.030195 and 0.030205 not

including 0.030205)

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Combining Significant Figures

 All digits are kept throughout all calculations. Insignificant figures are only removed when

reporting results (at the very end).

 When the highest-placed insignificant digit is 5 or greater, add one to the last significant digit

(i.e. round up). If the highest-placed insignificant digit is less than 5, don’t change the last

significant digit (i.e. round down).

 When adding or subtracting, a digit in the sum or difference (answer) is significant if the same

place (ones, tens, etc.) is significant in every added or subtracted term.

 When multiplying or dividing, the number of significant digits in the product or quotient

(answer) is the same as the smallest number of significant figures digit in any term .

Examples:

2.31 + 4.1 = 6.41  6.4 While 2.31 is good to the hundredths place, 4.1 is only good to the tenth’s

place. Thus the sum is only good to the tenth’s place.

4.31 - 2.1 = 2.21  2.2 While 2.31 is good to the hundredths place, 4.1 is only good to the tenth’s

place. Thus the difference is only good to the tenth’s place.

4.755 + 60.76 + 0.02 = 65.535  65.54 Each term is good to the hundredths place, but every term

isn’t good to the thousandths place. Since the thousandths

place is a 5, round up.

1000 + 100 + 10 +1 = 1111  1000 Because the ones place, the tens place, and the hundreds place

are all insignificant in the first term, the answer is only good to

the thousands place.

2.31  4.1 = 9.471  9.5 4.1 is only good to two significant figures. Thus, the product is only good

to two significant figures. The seven (greater than 5) is rounded up.

475.5  60.76 = 7.82587228…  7.826 Each term is good to four significant figures. Therefore the

product is good to four significant figures. Round up the 8.

(7.14 + 3.3)  4.05 = (10.44)  4.05 = 42.282  42.3

Because the hundredths place in 3.3 is NOT significant, the hundredths place in 10.44 is not significant.

As 10.4 and 4.05 are both good to three significant figures so is their product. While the last 4 in

“10.44” is not significant, it remains in the calculation until the end. Dropping it leads to the answer

“42.1, which is incorrect.

Disturbing Sig Fig Exercise: 3  5 = ? 3  7 = ? 3  8 = ?

Remember, “20” means anything between 15 and 25, and “200” means anything from 150 to 250.

Significant Figures of Conversion Factors

 Some conversion factors are considered exact (i.e. having infinite number of sig figs)

 1 day = 24 hours

 1 hour = 60 minutes

 1 minute = 60 seconds

 In other conversion factors, the 1 on one side is considered exact, while the significant figures of

the other term are determined normally.

 Using “1 mile = 1609 m” as a conversion factor would only be good to 4 sig figs.