China and Japan
What were the implications of the ‘warlord era’ that affected China from 1916 to 1928?
Issues facing China
In the 19th century, China’s Manchu dynasty weakened as Western powers took control of provinces to exploit trade. China’s defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, both on its soil, highlighted its vulnerability. Internally, resistance to reform and modernization, led by Empress Tzu-Hsi, fueled unrest. She relied on warlords and foreign powers to suppress uprisings, rejecting needed change.
The Boxer Rebellion (1898–1901) reflected growing nationalist anger. Though initially against it, the Manchu government eventually supported the rebellion, leading to retaliation by an eight-nation alliance and heavy reparations.
Meanwhile, Western influence grew through education, industrialization, and infrastructure development, intensifying calls for reform.
Sun Yat-sen emerged as a key reformist, advocating democracy and modernization. He founded the Revive China Society and later the Revolutionary Alliance, aiming to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic. Forced into exile after a failed uprising, he continued promoting his vision abroad.
The Manchu dynasty's decline worsened after Empress Tzu-Hsi's death in 1908, leaving the throne to a child, Pu Yi.
In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution began with a military uprising in Wuchang over continued payments to foreign powers. The rebellion spread, and many provinces declared independence. The Manchu government turned to Yuan Shih-kai, who regained control with the powerful Beiyang army.
Meanwhile, Sun Yat-sen returned and formed the Kuomintang, becoming the provisional president of a new republic based in Nanking in early 1912. However, power remained divided between the north (controlled by Yuan) and the south (led by Sun). To avoid civil war, Sun agreed to let Yuan become president in exchange for the emperor’s abdication.
In March 1912, China officially became a republic with Yuan as president, ending over two millennia of monarchy—though the new government lacked unity, resources, and experience in democratic rule.
Yuan Shih-kai and the disintegration of China
Yuan Shih-kai, a military leader and former Manchu official, became president of the Republic of China but opposed reform. After the KMT won elections and planned to limit presidential power, its leader, Sung Chiao-jen, was assassinated in 1913—many believed Yuan was behind it. Yuan suppressed opposition, banned the KMT, and became a military dictator, ending hopes for democracy.
In 1914, Yuan dissolved parliament and gave himself full control. His acceptance of Japan’s Twenty-One Demands in 1915 damaged his credibility. That same year, he declared himself emperor, sparking widespread rebellion and losing army support. Several provinces declared independence. Yuan abdicated after just 83 days as emperor and died shortly after.
After Yuan Shih-kai’s death in 1916, China fell into chaos as no strong central authority remained.
President Li Yuan-Hung lacked military support, and the country fragmented into territories ruled by warlords, each with private armies focused on personal power and wealth. These warlords raised taxes, seized land, and caused hardship for peasants, driving many into unemployment or forced military service.
By 1928, warlord armies had grown to about two million. Though a few warlords, like Yan Xishan, introduced reforms, most were corrupt and violent. The Peking government had little real control, though it remained a target for warlords seeking foreign loans and revenue.
In 1917, Sun Yat-sen returned from exile and set up a rival KMT government in Canton, but he relied on warlord support and couldn’t expand beyond the south.
By 1918, China was politically and economically fractured, with both northern and southern governments lacking true authority. The instability and suffering fostered growing support for radical and revolutionary movements.
Reasons for and impact of the May Fourth Movement
In response to China's chaos and warlord rule, Chinese intellectuals launched the New Culture Movement around 1915, blaming China’s weakness on outdated traditions.
They promoted Western values like democracy, individual freedom, and mass education to modernize and unify the country. These ideas gained strong support among students, especially at Peking University.
Frustration peaked with the May Fourth Movement on 4 May 1919, after the Paris Peace Conference awarded German-occupied Chinese land in Shantung Province to Japan.
Around 5,000 students protested in Beijing, demanding national dignity, boycotts of Japanese goods, and punishment for officials who cooperated with Japan. Protests spread nationwide, sparking strikes and public unrest. The government eventually gave in by releasing arrested students and refusing to sign the peace treaty.
Although the protests didn’t stop Japan’s growing influence in practice, the May Fourth Movement had a lasting impact.
It marked the rise of Chinese nationalism, rejection of Confucian traditions, and growing calls for modernization. It also led to increased literacy, worker activism, and laid the ideological foundations for both the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party, founded in 1921.
Reasons for the growth of the Kuomintang under Sun Yat-Sen
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921 by intellectuals like Chen Duxiu, who had participated in the May Fourth Movement.
Initially small and weak, the CCP aimed to create a workers’ state through revolution and quickly formed ties with Soviet Russia, which supported global communist movements through the Comintern.
Recognizing the CCP’s limited influence, the Comintern encouraged cooperation with Sun Yat-sen’s Kuomintang (KMT).
In 1923, the First United Front was formed, with CCP members joining the KMT to work toward shared political reform goals. This alliance brought Soviet financial and organizational aid to the KMT and helped it build a stronger army.
A military academy was set up in Whampoa, led by Chiang Kai-shek, who had trained in Moscow. His mission was to strengthen the KMT militarily to defend against warlords and expand its control beyond Canton.
The Three Principles
Sun Yat-sen’s political philosophy, outlined in his 1923 book Fundamentals of National Reconstruction, centered on the Three Principles:
Nationalism – A strong, unified China free from foreign control.
Democracy – A system where leaders are elected and people are educated for self-governance.
Social and economic reform – Improving life for peasants and workers, modernizing agriculture, and reforming the class system (but not through communist-style land confiscation).
Sun blamed Western imperialism for China’s disunity and saw Russian support as vital due to its respectful and equal treatment of China.
The KMT (Kuomintang) gained strong support, especially in Kwangtung (Guangdong), due to:
Its nationalist message.
Alignment with May Fourth Movement ideals.
Hope of ending warlord violence.
Appeal to both middle-class businesspeople and workers/peasants through its alliance with the CCP.
However, the KMT’s influence was mostly limited to southern China. Internally, the party was divided: Communist members wanted radical reform, while business interests favored traditional governance to protect their wealth. The party was united only by its desire to reunify and strengthen China.
The Northern Expedition
In March 1926, Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA), purged the KMT of communists, consolidating his control of the party. Despite growing support, the KMT's authority remained limited to Kwangtung Province, while warlords dominated the rest of China.
To reunify China, Chiang launched the Northern Expedition in July 1926, aiming to defeat the warlords. By the end of 1926, the KMT had gained control of all land south of the Yangtze River after defeating two warlord armies. The KMT’s success was due to:
Four years of planning, with strategic routes and key confrontation points.
Russian and Soviet military support which helped strengthen the KMT’s military.
Well-organized NRA forces, with modern weapons and officers trained in Whampoa Military Academy, the USSR, and Japan.
Warlord armies were poorly organized and often dispersed when confronted by the NRA.
Ordinary Chinese people, weary of warlord violence, supported the KMT, swelling its ranks from 100,000 to over 250,000 by the end of 1926.
In 1927, divisions within the KMT leadership threatened to halt the Northern Expedition.
Some, led by Wang Ching-wei, supported cooperation with the CCP, advocating democracy and social reform, while Chiang Kai-shek opposed communism and favored traditionalism.
By April 1927, two rival KMT governments had formed: one in Wuhan (led by Wang) and one in Nanchang (led by Chiang). Despite these internal divisions, the KMT continued to advance, capturing Hankow, Shanghai, and Nanking, and eventually Peking in 1928.
The KMT’s success seemed to fulfill Sun Yat-sen’s vision of a unified, nationalist China.
However, the KMT’s control was limited. While they nominally controlled China, real power remained in the south and central areas, with the north still under warlord control. Warlords reformed their armies and allied against Chiang, leading to the Central Plains War of 1930.
Additionally, Japan, concerned about the KMT’s success, opposed their advances. The Jinan Incident in 1928 saw Japan’s forces clash with KMT troops, killing thousands, highlighting Japan as a formidable adversary.
Though the Northern Expedition was a success, it revealed significant divisions within the KMT, weakening its ability to form a stable national government and maintain unity in the face of internal and external challenges.
How effectively did Chiang Kai-shek deal with the communists in the period 1927 to 1936?
The Shanghai massacres and the extermination campaigns
The success of the Northern Expedition was partly due to support from peasants and factory workers, attracted by the CCP’s promises of land reform and cooperatives. However, Chiang Kai-shek, opposed to communism, saw the CCP as a threat and rival Wang Ching-wei’s Wuhan government as undermining his leadership. In April 1927, tensions peaked when the CCP led worker uprisings in Shanghai without Chiang’s consent.
Chiang responded with the Purification Movement, aiming to purge communists from the KMT. On 6 April, he shut down CCP offices in Shanghai, imposed martial law, and ordered mass arrests and killings, aided by the criminal Green Gang. The White Terror spread to other cities, with an estimated 12,000 communists killed or disappeared in three weeks.
Though the CCP tried to resist, they were defeated. Wang’s government collapsed, and by late 1927, Chiang was the undisputed leader of the KMT. With Peking’s capture in 1928, he declared himself political and military leader of China.
However, his violent actions led to the loss of Soviet support, depriving the KMT of vital aid. The CCP, though weakened and isolated in Kiangsi Province, survived under Mao Zedong, forming the Revolutionary Army of Workers and Peasants, which would become a lasting threat to Chiang's rule.
The Long March 1934-35
By 1927, Mao Zedong held key roles in both the CCP and KMT, known for organizing unions and peasant groups. When Chiang Kai-shek’s Purification Movement targeted communists, Mao retreated to Kiangsi Province, forming the Red Army with Zhu De in 1931. That same year, Mao established the Soviet Republic of China, though it controlled only a small, poor area.
From 1930 to 1934, Chiang launched five extermination campaigns against the CCP. Mao used guerrilla tactics, but also brutally suppressed internal opposition—executing thousands in events like the Futian Incident. Despite internal divisions, the CCP’s popularity with peasants grew.
In 1933, Chiang’s new strategy was to surround and starve the communists. By 1934, the KMT had seized half of CCP territory, killing 60,000 Red Army troops. Mao opposed a failed CCP counterattack and was removed from leadership, though he was later proved right.
Facing defeat, the CCP launched the Long March in October 1934, a 9,700 km retreat to Yenan in northern China. Initially disastrous, with 45,000 losses at Xiang, Mao regained control in January 1935, improving strategy by increasing mobility and unpredictability.
After enduring extreme terrain, KMT attacks, Tibetan resistance, and warlord forces, only 10,000–20,000 of the original 90,000 survived. Yet, the Long March ensured the survival of communism in China and cemented Mao’s leadership.
The Xi’an Incident, 1936
In the early 1930s, Chiang Kai-shek faced not only internal threats from the CCP but also growing Japanese aggression, especially after the 1931 Mukden Incident, which led to Japan’s invasion of Manchuria and the creation of the puppet state Manchukuo under former emperor Pu Yi. Despite China’s appeal, the League of Nations failed to act, and Japan continued expanding its influence.
Chiang adopted a non-resistance policy toward Japan, focusing instead on defeating the CCP. This angered many, including KMT generals Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng, who believed resisting Japan was the greater priority. In December 1936, during the Xi’an Incident, they kidnapped Chiang to force him into forming a united front with the CCP against Japan.
The CCP, with Soviet support, played a key role in negotiating a peaceful resolution. Under pressure, Chiang agreed to end attacks on the CCP and form the Second United Front against Japan. He was released on 24 December 1936.
The incident:
Saved the CCP from destruction and boosted its image as defenders of China.
Unified Chinese resistance to Japan (briefly).
Preserved Chiang’s leadership, though he later punished Zhang and Yang—Zhang was placed under house arrest for 40 years, and Yang was executed in 1949.
The Xi’an Incident marked a temporary truce between the KMT and CCP, soon tested by the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937.
Attempts at modernisation and reform
Achievements of the KMT under Chiang Kai-shek:
Unification Efforts:
The Northern Expedition (1926–28) helped the KMT gain control over most of China.
Established the Nationalist Government in Nanking (Nanjing), gaining international recognition.
Reform Goals:
Followed Sun Yat-sen’s “Three Stages of Revolution”: military unification, transitional authoritarian rule, then democracy.
Aimed to modernize China politically, economically, and socially.
Economic and Infrastructure Development:
Created the Central Bank (1928) and a national currency.
Launched economic reconstruction: built roads, railways, improved communications and electricity access.
Reduced foreign trade control and secured foreign loans, especially from the U.S.
Social and Legal Reforms:
Improved public health and cracked down on opium.
Reformed the legal system; established a Supreme Court (1931).
Introduced land reforms to stabilize tenant farming.
Promoted national education, language standardization, and limited labor protections.
Took steps to improve women’s rights and end arranged marriages.
Failures and Limitations:
Weak Control and Internal Conflict:
Many northern regions remained under warlord influence.
Internal divisions in the KMT and resistance to reforms.
Civil war against CCP drained resources and focus.
Limited Implementation of Reforms:
Reforms had little impact in rural, remote areas.
Education remained uneven and limited in quality.
Only minor progress in social welfare; military consumed nearly half of the national budget.
External Challenges:
Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931) weakened the regime.
The Great Depression limited foreign aid and hurt the economy.
Conclusion:
Despite ambitious reform plans, the KMT’s achievements during the Nanking Decade were limited. Continued warlord influence, internal disunity, war with the CCP, Japanese aggression, and economic struggles hindered meaningful national progress and modernization.
Why did the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) gain support up to 1945?
The Long March and CCP Survival (1934–1936):
The Long March, though a military retreat with huge losses (up to 90% of the Red Army), was transformed by Mao into a propaganda victory that emphasized Red Army heroism. Despite exaggerations—such as the Luding Bridge battle—this narrative won public support, especially from peasants. The Xi’an Incident in 1936 brought a temporary truce between the CCP and KMT, giving the CCP a chance to regroup in Shensi Province, establishing a stronghold in Yenan (Yan’an).
Yenan Soviet and Peasant Support:
The CCP set up the Yenan Soviet, promoting land redistribution, healthcare, education, and hygiene. Mao ordered Red Army soldiers to treat peasants respectfully, winning widespread support. The CCP used propaganda to present Yenan as a model society. Foreign visitors like Edgar Snow and Norman Bethune praised CCP efforts, though they were shown only the positive aspects and didn’t see forced land seizures or ideological repression.
Mao’s Consolidation of Power – The Rectification Movement (1941–44):
Mao sought full control of the CCP, facing opposition from Soviet-trained leaders like Wang Ming, who favored a proletarian revolution. Mao, believing China's revolution should be peasant-led, launched the Rectification Movement to eliminate dissent. Initially framed as ideological training, it turned into a purge involving torture, public humiliation, and executions, led by Kang Sheng. Up to 10,000 people may have died. Mao ended the campaign in 1944, blaming local officials, but by then he had secured undisputed control of the CCP.
Impact of war with Japan after 1937
Expansion of CCP Influence and the Yenan Model:
Using the success of the Yenan Soviet as a model, Mao launched the ‘Organisation Phase’, sending CCP leaders to rural areas to replicate their policies and gain support. Though strongest among peasants, the CCP also attracted urban factory workers dissatisfied with poor conditions and small business owners burdened by KMT taxation. Support for the CCP grew steadily.
Impact of Japanese Aggression (1931–1937):
After Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and renamed it Manchukuo, Chiang Kai-shek’s government signed the Tanggu Truce in 1933, effectively recognizing Japan’s control and retreating from northern China. Japan continued expanding its influence through military action and deals with local warlords.
Second Sino-Japanese War and CCP Propaganda:
In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale invasion, leading to the brutal occupation of cities like Nanking, where up to 300,000 civilians were massacred. The Nationalist government struggled to resist Japan, retreating westward. A desperate move to flood the Yellow River to slow Japanese advances killed up to 1 million Chinese civilians and caused long-term starvation.
CCP Gains from Nationalist Failures:
Though the CCP played a limited military role—mainly guerrilla warfare and occupying areas Japan abandoned—it used propaganda to portray itself as the true defender of China. This boosted its nationalist image and helped recruit new supporters, especially as the KMT appeared weak and ineffective.
Unpopularity of Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang
Declining Support for the KMT Before 1937:
Early KMT support came from its alliance with the CCP during the Northern Expedition, which raised hopes for reforms like land redistribution and better factory conditions. However, after Chiang's anti-communist Purification Movement in 1927, these hopes faded.
Failures in Reform and Governance:
While the KMT passed some reform laws, such as banning child labor, these were poorly enforced. Peasants saw no land reform, and by 1934, over 60 million were landless and unemployed. The KMT's focus on serving the wealthy alienated workers and peasants alike.
Corruption and Oppression:
The KMT was widely seen as corrupt, especially in its control of the opium trade. Promised democratic reforms never happened, and Chiang increasingly embraced authoritarianism. In 1934, censorship was introduced, and critics were jailed or killed.
The ‘New Life Movement’ and Fascist Influences:
Chiang’s New Life Movement, which promoted loyalty and discipline, closely resembled European fascism and served to strengthen his control.
KMT vs. CCP:
While Mao's CCP gained grassroots support through propaganda and reform promises, the KMT relied on military force and suppression. Its failure to defend China against Japan further weakened its popularity, setting the stage for civil war after Japan's defeat in 1945.
Why did Japan become a military dictatorship in the 1930s and with what consequences?
Japan’s international status in 1919 and its reactions to the Paris peace settlements
Japan After World War I:
Japan emerged from WWI as a wealthy, industrialized power with growing influence in China and a strong navy. At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, Japan was recognized as one of the five great powers and gained control of Germany’s former holdings in China’s Shantung Province, along with a seat on the League of Nations Council.
Racial Equality Rejected:
Japan proposed a racial equality clause at the Conference, gaining support from several nations. However, Western powers like the USA, Britain, and Australia opposed it due to fears over immigration and maintaining white dominance. President Wilson blocked the proposal by requiring unanimous agreement. This rejection deeply angered the Japanese delegation and public, who felt disrespected by the West.
Shantung Reversal and Growing Resentment:
Western powers later reversed their decision to give Japan control of Shantung, awarding it to China instead. Although Japan maintained influence through deals with Chinese warlords, this fueled national resentment and a sense of betrayal by the West.
Washington Naval Conference (1921–22):
Japan agreed to limit its navy to three-fifths the size of the US and British fleets. Some historians argue Japan had no choice, while others believe it willingly cooperated to ensure security and economic access to China. Regardless, the government’s pro-Western policy increasingly clashed with rising anti-Western public opinion at home.
Political and economic factors in the failure of democracy
Decline of Japanese Democracy (1918–1932):
Japan adopted constitutional democracy in 1889, with the emperor retaining significant powers. By 1925, all adult males could vote, and political parties focused on domestic reform. However, democracy weakened in the 1920s and early 1930s due to political instability, corruption, and slow decision-making. Party governments were seen as ineffective and influenced by big business. Disillusionment grew, especially after Japan’s diplomatic failures at the Paris Peace Conference and unpopular naval agreements with the West.
Rise of Militarism and Nationalism:
Public support shifted toward the military and ultra-nationalist secret societies like the Sakurakai. Political assassinations—including Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in 1932—highlighted growing opposition to democratic rule. The military gained influence, as army and navy ministers had to be active officers, making civilian control difficult. Anti-Western sentiment surged, especially after the 1924 U.S. Japanese Exclusion Act.
Economic Crisis:
Japan’s WWI economic boom collapsed by 1920. Falling export prices, factory closures, and rising unemployment triggered unrest. The Great Depression worsened the situation, halving textile exports and plunging rural areas into famine. Public anger turned against the democratic government.
Manchurian Crisis (1931–1933):
In 1931, the Kwantung Army invaded Manchuria without government approval, creating the puppet state of Manchukuo. The government’s weak response, and the emperor’s reluctance to challenge the military, exposed its loss of control. Reasons for the invasion included Chinese threats to Japanese interests, resource needs, a desire for economic self-sufficiency, and belief in military strength as Japan’s future.
Collapse of Democracy:
The military takeover of Manchuria enjoyed public support. The assassination of Inukai and weak civilian leadership led Emperor Hirohito to form a National Unity government under Admiral Saitō in 1932, effectively ending democracy. Japan rejected the League of Nations' call to withdraw from Manchuria and left the League in 1933. In 1936, it aligned with Germany in the Anti-Comintern Pact, later joined by Italy in 1937, signaling its drift toward authoritarianism and militarism.
Outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War
Japan–China Relations and the Second Sino-Japanese War (1931–1937):
Though Japan was allowed a limited troop presence in China under the 1901 Boxer Protocol, it exceeded these limits by the 1930s. Skirmishes with Chinese forces occurred frequently but were generally minor. However, in July 1937, an incident at the Marco Polo Bridge—likely a misinterpreted Japanese training exercise—led to full-scale war when Japan used the event as a pretext to invade China.
War in China (1937–1945):
Japan quickly captured key cities like Shanghai and Nanking, forcing the Chinese Nationalist government to relocate. Despite early Japanese successes, by 1939 the war had become a stalemate. The KMT and CCP united against Japan, stretching Japanese supply lines and employing guerrilla tactics. While Japan held major cities and committed widespread atrocities, it struggled to control rural areas.
International Response:
Western powers, especially the USA and Britain, were alarmed by Japan’s aggression but provided little help due to their own preoccupations—Britain with World War II and the USA with isolationism.
Japanese Expansion Plans:
With the outbreak of WWII in Europe in 1939, Japan saw an opportunity to expand into Southeast Asia to gain resources like oil, rubber, and tin. However, some leaders, including PM Prince Konoye, were cautious due to fears of a Soviet attack. This concern ended when Germany invaded the USSR in June 1941.
Rise of Militarism:
General Hideki Tojo became prime minister in 1941, marking Japan’s full transformation into a military dictatorship. The government was now fully committed to expanding its empire through continued war in China and territorial conquests across Southeast Asia.
Reasons for Japanese involvement in the Second World War
Japan’s Expansion and the Path to War with the USA (1941):
After the threat from the USSR was removed, Japan, under Prime Minister Tojo, embarked on territorial expansion in Southeast Asia. The USA, concerned about Japan's growing influence in the Pacific, gradually shifted from isolationism to opposition, imposing economic sanctions, including halting oil exports to Japan in 1941. Japan, facing a lack of resources, planned further expansion, including targeting the Dutch East Indies for oil.
Tensions Escalate:
Despite ongoing diplomatic talks, Japan continued preparing for war. In November 1941, Japan broke off relations with the USA, and on December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. The attack aimed to cripple the US Pacific fleet and buy time for Japanese expansion. The assault killed over 2,400 Americans and damaged or destroyed numerous ships and aircraft.
Why Pearl Harbor?
Japan believed war with the USA was inevitable and decided to strike first, seeing it as a way to weaken the US military and secure resources. The attack was also intended to demoralize the American public and force a peaceful settlement.
US Unpreparedness:
Despite cracking Japan’s diplomatic codes, the US was unprepared for an attack on Pearl Harbor. Intelligence about Japan’s plans was scattered, and the government expected an attack elsewhere, like the Dutch East Indies, not Hawaii.
Impact of the Attack:
The attack ended US isolationism, leading to a declaration of war on Japan. This also prompted Nazi Germany to declare war on the USA, bringing America into the European theater of WWII. For Japan, the attack failed in key goals: many US ships were at sea, and the Pacific fleet’s oil reserves remained intact.
Japan’s Strategic Miscalculations:
Japan’s militaristic foreign policy, including its alliances with fascist powers like Germany and Italy, ultimately led to disastrous conflicts. Japan's war with China and its conflict with Western powers culminated in its war with the USA, sealing its fate.