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The Concept of Natural Environments

• Natural Modification by Animals

  • Flora Lichtman poses the question: What constitutes a natural environment?

  • Example: Castor canadensis (North American beaver) significantly alters its habitat through landscaping activities.

  • Behavior Characteristics:

  • Gnaws branches and trees using teeth.

  • Constructs dams that change the landscape.

  • These alterations create new habitats for amphibians and fish while displacing existing populations of insects and mammals.

  • Comparison: Few other organisms, including humans, can transform landscapes as profoundly as beavers.

Urban Ecology

• Definition of Ecology

  • Regina Alvarez defines it as the study of interactions between organisms and their environment.

  • Urban ecology focuses on these interactions specifically within urban settings.

• Shift in Ecological Study

  • Historical perspective: Ecology was previously associated with remote, untouched landscapes (e.g., rain forests).

  • Modern perspective: Ecologists recognize that urban environments are integral to ecological studies.

  • Implication: Humans are part of the ecosystem, and urban ecology is essential for understanding broader ecological principles.

Ecosystem Services

• Definition:

  • Mary Pearl describes ecosystem services as the benefits provided by a functioning ecosystem.

  • Examples include:

  • Provision of fresh water, often unfiltered in urban environments like New York City, which is purified through natural ecosystems.

  • Pollination, a service where insects and birds are responsible for pollinating one-third of the crops consumed by humans.

Research and Observational Techniques in Urban Ecology

• Species Composition Studies

  • Urban ecologists study species distribution and the factors influencing population dynamics.

  • Focus on specific species like coyotes in urban parks.

• Methodology:

  • Camera Traps:

  • Used by researchers like Mark Weckel for monitoring wildlife in urban settings.

  • Functionality: Triggers on movement of warm-bodied animals, capturing images without delays, enabling near-video photography of wildlife behavior, such as coyote mothers with pups.

Historical Context of Coyotes in Urban Areas

• Changes in Predator Populations

  • Historical element: Eastern wolves once inhabited urban areas but were eliminated by human expansion and deforestation.

  • Mark Weckel notes the term "defaunated" to describe the human-induced loss of large predators.

  • By the 1960s, wolves were extinct in the northeastern U.S.

• Coyote Expansion

  • The western coyote has successfully expanded its range eastward, breeding with eastern wolves, resulting in a new population classified as eastern coyotes.

  • Adaptation:

  • Eastern coyotes have shown adaptability to suburban landscapes.

Interactions between People and Urban Environments

• Social Perspectives on Urban Parks

  • Tammy Lewis investigates how urban parks, like Brooklyn Bridge Park, promote sustainability and benefit both wildlife and human residents.

  • Importance of creating amenities in urban environments that support ecological and human community needs.

• Scientific Approach to Urban Spaces

  • Methodology: Researchers employ census data to assess changes before and after park development, providing a comparative framework for understanding impacts on urban ecosystems.

  • Sample Selection: Proper assessment requires selecting representative parks to ensure findings are applicable beyond a single case study.

Conservation and Biodiversity in Urban Areas

• Need for Community Involvement in Conservation

  • Chanda Bennett emphasizes the necessity of including people in conservation efforts, stating that communities have intrinsic ties to the environment.

  • Importance of recognizing New York City as a biologically diverse area, contrary to its common portrayal as a mere concrete jungle.

  • Call to integrate natural landscapes with urban life for improved community awareness and conservation efforts.