United Kingdom and the European Project: A Detailed Historical and Political Study Guide

Historical Context and Resistance to Early European Integration

• The United Kingdom (UK) officially exited the European Union (EU) on $31$ January $2020$ following the Brexit referendum of $2016$.
• The relationship has been historically complex from its inception.
• In $1946$, Winston Churchill delivered a landmark speech in Zurich, Switzerland.
• Churchill advocated for the creation of "a kind of United states of Europe" to "recreate the European family" in the aftermath of the Second World War.
• Notably, Churchill’s vision did not explicitly include Britain as a member of this federation, but rather as a friend and sponsor.

Reasons for the Initial Refusal to Join the European Economic Community (EEC)

• Sovereignty Concerns: The primary objection was the perceived loss of sovereignty. Britain viewed the EEC as a supra-national organization.
• Economic Control: British governments feared they would lose control over their own national economy, which would then be subject to the decisions of the European commission based in Brussels.
• Integration Fears: Politicians were suspicious that economic integration was merely a precursor to total political integration.
• The Commonwealth: There was significant fear that Britain's relationship with the Commonwealth would be damaged. Joining the EEC would likely end Britain's ability to provide trade preferences for goods originating from Commonwealth countries.
• Special Relationship with the USA: Officials believed that deep involvement in European economic integration could harm Britain's "special relationship" with the United States.
• By $1961$, sentiment shifted. Conservative Prime Minister Macmillan announced Britain would apply to join the EEC.

The Shift Toward Membership ($1961$-$1975$)

• Reasons for the Application Shift:   - The EEC was an outstanding economic success, while Britain’s economy appeared stagnant by comparison.   - The Commonwealth lacked the same level of purchasing power (pouvoir d'achat) as the European member nations.   - With many former colonies gaining independence, there was no longer a guarantee that trade levels with the Commonwealth would remain stable.
• Eventual Entry ($1973$):   - Britain finally gained entry in $1973$.   - Entry was facilitated by the resignation of Charles De Gaulle in $1969$. His successor, Georges Pompidou, held a friendlier stance toward British membership.
• The $1975$ Referendum:   - Initial entry in $1973$ faced divided public opinion regarding sovereignty impacts.   - The Labour Party was split on the issue. After taking power in $1974$, Prime Minister Wilson held a referendum in $1975$.   - Results: $67\,\%$ voted to remain. However, turnout was only $\frac{2}{3}$ of the electorate, meaning less than half of the total potential voters were actively convinced of the benefits of membership.

Britain and the European Community since $1973$

• Budgetary Conflicts:   - Early membership years were marked by disappointment regarding tangible benefits.   - A major crisis occurred in $1980$ under Conservative PM Margaret Thatcher.   - Thatcher discovered Britain's contribution to the EEC budget was set to be the highest of all members, despite the poor state of the UK economy.   - At a $1980$ summit, Thatcher was famously aggressive, reportedly banging the table and demanding, "We want our money back!".   - In $1984$, a compromise was reached, resulting in a significantly reduced payment known as "the rebate."
• The Maastricht Treaty ($1992$) and Integration:   - The treaty aimed to start a "new stage in the process of creating an even closer union."   - Britain strongly opposed federalism and monetary union.   - Result: Britain (and Denmark) secured an opt-out from the single currency (the Euro).   - In $1997$, PM Tony Blair (Labour) took a more constructive approach to Europe but did not join the Euro, adhering to public opinion which strongly favored keeping the Pound ($\pounds$).

The Path to Brexit ($2014$-$2020$)

• Rise of Euroscepticism:   - In May $2014$, the UK Independence Party (UKIP), led by Nigel Farage, won the European elections in the UK.   - UKIP, a populist right-wing party, campaigned for full exit from the EU.   - PM David Cameron attempted to neutralize the threat of UKIP by promising a national referendum if he won the $2015$ General Elections.
• The Referendum ($2016$):   - Following Cameron's victory, the referendum was held on June $23$, $2016$.   - The "Leave" side won.   - Official exit occurred on $31$ January $2020$ under PM Boris Johnson after reaching an agreement with the EU.
• Historical Precedents for Brexit:   - Historical lack of enthusiasm for the Union.   - Consistent refusal of deep policy involvement, specifically not joining the Schengen Area or the Eurozone.   - Unsettled public opinion; since $2008$, bad opinions of the EU have generally outnumbered good ones.
• Cultural and Geographical Factors:   - Geographical separation of the British Isles from the continent.   - "Outward looking" legacy of the British Empire (ties to USA, Australia).   - Historical focus on the global empire in the $19^{th}$ century rather than continental affairs.

Analysis of the Brexit Vote

• Vote Statistics:   - Leave: $17.4$ million votes ($52\,\%$).   - Remain: $16.1$ million votes ($48\,\%$).   - Turnout: Approximately $72\,\%$.
• Arguments FOR Leaving:   - Longing for the age of Empire (Britain as a great nation).   - Belief that EU is overbearing; desire for independence and sovereign control.   - Desire to strengthen ties with the USA and Commonwealth.   - Belief that the EU is too costly and undemocratic (decisions made by non-elected Commission).   - Concerns over immigration and border control.   - Supported by: UKIP (Nigel Farage), sections of the Conservative Party (Boris Johnson).
• Arguments AGAINST Leaving:   - EU maintained peace for $60$ years.   - Benefits of the single market and free movement.   - High cost and complexity of the exit process.   - Recognition of EU subventions (subsidies) received by the UK.   - Fear of an economic crisis.   - Supported by: Labour, Greens, Liberals, some Conservatives (David Cameron), SNP.

Demographic and Regional Voting Patterns

• Profile of Leave Voters:   - Older population ($60\,\%$ of those over age $45$).   - Unemployed, unskilled workers, or those without formal qualifications.   - People who feel displaced by the global system.   - White population ($53\,\%$).   - Social outlook: See multiculturalism, feminism, the Green movement, and globalization as negative.   - Geography: England and Wales; rural areas and small towns.
• Profile of Remain Voters:   - Younger population ($73\,\%$ of those under age $24$).   - Working people, higher management, and university graduates.   - People who benefit from the global system.   - Diverse backgrounds: Black, Asian, Muslim.   - Social outlook: See multiculturalism, feminism, the Green movement, and globalization as positive.   - Geography: Scotland and Northern Ireland; London and large cities.

Impact on Scotland and Northern Ireland

• Scotland:   - History: Integrated into UK in $1701$ (Act of Union). $1999$ Act of Devolution created the Scottish Parliament, currently dominated by the pro-independence SNP.   - In $2014$, $55\,\%$ of Scots voted to stay in the UK.   - Brexit Impact: $62\,\%$ of Scots voted Remain. This reignited independence demands.   - Economic Consequences: Issues for fishing companies, loss of European labor in tourism and construction.   - Complications: Independence would require a hard border with England and adoption of the Euro, which most Scots oppose.
• Northern Ireland:   - History: Annexed in $1800$. Civil war ($1916$-$1919$) led to partition (Republic of Ireland in South, Northern Ireland in UK).   - "The Troubles" ($1968$-$1998$): Violent conflict between Irish nationalists (predominantly Catholic) and British unionists (predominantly Protestant).   - Good Friday Agreement ($1998$) ended the dark period of conflict.   - Brexit Impact: $56\,\%$ of NI voted Remain. Catholics voted Remain; Unionists voted Leave.   - Border Issue: NI is the only physical border between UK and EU. Establishing a "hard border" is opposed by Catholics as it recalls "The Troubles."   - Solution: Goods for NI are unchecked at sea, but goods for the EU are checked before entering the island of Ireland. A future reunification referendum with the South remains a possibility.

Recap of the European Union (EU) Timeline

• $1957$: Treaty of Rome establishes the EEC. Founding members: France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands.
• $1973$ Expansion: UK, Ireland, Denmark join.
• $1980$s Expansion: Spain, Portugal, Greece join after transitioning to democracy.
• $1990$s Expansion: Sweden, Finland, Austria join after the Cold War ends (previously neutral).
• $2004$ Expansion: $10$ new states, mostly former communist countries.
• Subsequent Additions: Romania, Bulgaria, and Croatia join.
• $2013$: EU reaches $28$ member states (prior to Brexit).
• Integration Milestones:   - Initial focus: Single market and the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP/PAC).   - Maastricht Treaty ($1992$): EEC becomes EU; created European citizenship (voting rights where one lives).   - The Euro: Single currency officially in use in $2001$ for the Eurozone.   - Schengen Area: Allows free travel and settlement, though not all EU members (e.g., UK) joined.