September 11 Attacks, the War on Terror, and U.S. Policy Shifts
The Terrorist Attacks of September ,
Morning of the Attacks:
The morning of September , , was bright and clear along the East Coast of the United States.
Routine daily life was reflected in the front page of the New York Times, which covered the city’s ongoing mayoral campaign, rising ratings for morning television news programs, and new dress codes at area high schools.
The events transformed a regular Tuesday into a pivotal turning point in American history.
Execution of the Attacks:
Teams of hijackers from the terrorist group al Qaeda took control of four American airliners.
Two planes were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City.
Morning news programs, initially filming the aftermath of the first impact (then assumed to be an accident), captured live footage of the second plane hitting the other tower in a flash of fire and smoke.
The heat from the explosion of jet fuel and the damage from the crashes caused the upper floors of both towers to collapse in less than hours, reducing the buildings to smoldering rubble.
Casualties and Impact:
All passengers and crew on both planes died.
In the two buildings, people were killed.
New York City firefighters died while attempting to save victims before the collapse.
A third hijacked plane was flown into the Pentagon building in northern Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C., killing everyone on board and people on the ground.
A fourth plane, also headed toward Washington, crashed in a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after passengers attempted to storm the cockpit and disarm the hijackers. Everyone aboard was killed.
The War in Afghanistan
International Reaction:
World leaders and millions of citizens condemned the attacks and supported the United States.
German chancellor Gerhard Schroder stated the events were attacks not just against the U.S. but against all who shared its values.
Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda:
Osama bin Laden, a wealthy Saudi Arabian national operating his terror network from Afghanistan, was identified as the mastermind behind the attacks.
Bin Laden had come to Afghanistan in to help oust the invading Soviet army, during which time both he and the Taliban had ironically received support from the United States.
By the late s, after the departure of Soviets and Americans, bin Laden remained as the leader of al Qaeda.
Military Intervention:
The Taliban, then in power in Afghanistan, refused to turn bin Laden over to the U.S.
In October , the United States allied with local tribal leaders and began a bombing campaign, followed by the arrival of ground troops.
By November , the Taliban lost control of Kabul, the capital city.
Bin Laden and his followers escaped across the Afghan border to mountain sanctuaries in northern Pakistan.
A long-term U.S. presence followed, lasting more than a decade, with the goals of establishing a stable democratic government and turning security duties over to local forces.
The Iraq War
Motivations for War:
The Bush administration considered a new war with Iraq due to strained relations dating back to the Gulf War, economic sanctions, and American support for internal resistance against President Saddam Hussein.
Some administration members saw Iraq as a dangerous symbol to terrorists and advocated for an immediate strike.
Secretary of State Colin Powell endorsed a more cautious approach.
The Debate over Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs):
Proponents of the war argued Hussein was amassing WMDs.
Definition: are nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons capable of wreaking great havoc.
Hussein had used in the past, and United Nations inspectors had previously destroyed stockpiles, but proponents of invasion insisted they still existed.
President Bush told the nation in October that the U.S. was at risk.
The head of the UN’s Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission dismissed these claims, stating Hussein did not appear to possess .
In , Colin Powell argued Hussein had violated UN resolutions, relying on secret information from an informant that was later proven false.
Operation Iraqi Freedom:
The U.S. cut relations with Iraq on March , .
On March , , the U.S., along with Great Britain, Australia, and Poland, began the invasion.
Approximately soldiers were part of the initial U.S.-led force.
Baghdad fell relatively quickly, and televised images showed U.S. soldiers and Iraqis toppling statues of Hussein.
Consequences and Realities:
While American deaths were initially few, thousands of Iraqis died.
The occupation led to law and order problems, violent sectarian conflicts, and internal resentment against the U.S.
Despite Bush proclaiming victory in May , the conflict continued for several years.
New Policies to Combat Terrorism
Institutional Changes:
The realization that the end of the Cold War in did not end foreign threats led to the creation of the Office of Homeland Security in October .
The Homeland Security Act () created the Department of Homeland Security, which became a cabinet-level department to centralize government functions and protect against domestic threats.
The USA Patriot Act ():
Passed to allow law enforcement to monitor citizens' emails and phone conversations without a warrant.
It overturned parts of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of the late s, which had limited government spying on Americans.
The act was controversial but reauthorized by Congress in .
Surveillance and Legal Challenges:
Beginning in , the Bush administration implemented a wide-ranging program of warrantless domestic wiretapping.
In August , a federal judge in Detroit ordered the end of this program, citing violations of the Fourth Amendment (protection against unreasonable searches).
Detention and Guantanamo Bay:
The U.S. transported suspected al Qaeda members to the naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, for questioning, arguing they were not members of an official national military force.
In , the Supreme Court ruled in the case Hamdan v. Rumsfeld that military tribunals for Guantanamo prisoners violated U.S. federal law and international agreements.