The Modern African-American Civil Rights Movement 1945-1971

Origins of the Modern African-American Civil Rights Movement (1945-1971)

  • Started post-enslavement, with the modern movement gaining momentum around 1945.
  • The United Nations (1945):
    • Web Dubois and other black leaders advocated for human rights.
    • The Soviet Union used civil rights issues in the U.S. for propaganda.
  • GI Bill of 1945:
    • Provided educational opportunities for African American veterans.
    • Led to the development of "Freedom now" with educated individuals.
  • President Harry S. Truman:
    • In 1948, he pushed for civil rights legislation, including anti-lynching laws and voter protection, but faced Southern congressional opposition.
    • Desegregated the armed forces and supported baseball desegregation.
    • Allowed the court system to address racism, as executive and legislative actions were limited.

Civil Rights Organizations

  • NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People):
    • Founded in Albany, New York (1949).
    • Focused on fighting discrimination through the court system.
  • CORE (Congress of Racial Equality):
    • Founded in Chicago (1942).
    • Committed to nonviolent civil disobedience.
    • Organized Freedom Rides to challenge segregation (1961).
    • Freedom Summer of 1964 aimed to increase voter registration.
  • SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference):
    • Formed in 1957, led by Martin Luther King Jr.
    • Sought to dismantle legal segregation and secure voting rights.
  • SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee):
    • Formed in April 1960.
    • Organized sit-ins and voter education drives.
    • Focused on undermining Jim Crow laws.

Leaders of the Movement

  • The Black Church:
    • Served as both a leader and organization with significant membership, financial resources, printing facilities, influential preachers, and active women participants.
  • Martin Luther King Jr.:
    • Advocated for nonviolent resistance to provoke reactions and mobilize public opinion.
    • Believed in love conquering hate and sought a paradigm shift in racial attitudes.
    • Famous for his Letter from Birmingham Jail, defending civil disobedience against unjust laws.
  • Malcom X
    • Leading voice for black power, nationalism, ethnic pride, and separation from whites
    • Nation of Islam (NOI):
      • Believed whites were devils and advocated for geographic separation
      • Emphasized self-defense, economic independence, and family stability
    • Later in life, after a pilgrimage to Mecca, he changed his views.
      • Desire Bloodless revolution
      • Formed his own civil rights movement emphasizing individual responsibility for discrimination, not race

Judiciary Fights Against Segregation

  • NAACP led lawsuits to desegregate public schools.
  • Supreme Court rulings:
    • Declared restrictive covenants unconstitutional.
    • Banned segregated interstate transportation.
    • Desegregated graduate schools (Gaines v. University of Missouri, 1938).
    • Ensured equal access to law schools (Sweatt v. Painter, 1950) and college campuses (McLaurin v. Board of Regents at University of Oklahoma, 1950).
  • Brown \text{ v. } Topeka \text{ Board of Education} \text{ of Topeka, Kansas (1954)}
    • Overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
    • Ruled that segregated facilities were inherently unequal and violated the 14th Amendment.
  • Southern Manifesto (1955) resisted desegregation.
  • The Little Rock Nine (1957) faced resistance, leading to federal intervention.

Direct Action by African-Americans

  • Methods included boycotts, sit-ins, and bus boycotts to challenge unjust laws and raise awareness.
  • Montgomery Bus Boycott:
    • Triggered by Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her seat in December 1955.
    • Led to the desegregation of Montgomery buses.
  • Sit-ins (1960):
    • Began with college students protesting segregated lunch counters.
    • Sparked similar demonstrations across the South.
  • Freedom Rides (1961):
    • Challenged segregation on interstate buses.
    • Interstate Commerce Commission eventually ordered desegregation of buses and facilities.
  • Voter Education and Registration:
    • SNCC organized voter registration drives, particularly during Freedom Summer (1964).
  • March on Washington (August 1963):
    • Drew 200,000+ participants, highlighted by Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech.
  • Selma to Montgomery March (1965):
    • Faced violent opposition but ultimately reached Montgomery, leading to calls for desegregation and an end to poverty.
    • Televised violence increased public awareness.

Success and Results by 1965

  • Civil Rights Act of 1964:
    • Prohibited discrimination in voting and employment.
  • 24th Amendment:
    • Banned poll taxes in elections (1964).
  • Voting Rights Act of 1965:
    • Provided federal protection for black voters.
    • Increased African American voter registration.

The Movement Splits

  • SNCC and CORE became more militant.
  • Stokely Carmichael advocated for black power and community control.
  • Black Panther Party founded in 1966 by Huey Newton.

Death of the Movement

  • Assassinations of key leaders:
    • Malcolm X in 1965.
    • Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968.

Achievements and Values

  • Showed the U.S. government's responsiveness to social movements.
  • Inspired other movements (women's rights, Mexican-American civil rights).
  • Secured voting rights and increased black elected officials.
  • Ended Jim Crow laws and changed attitudes.
  • Improved economic opportunities for some African Americans.
  • Spurred an African American cultural revolution.
  • The modern American civil rights movement is the most successful and important movement of the 21st century.