Chapter 6 (Rome and Christianity)
The Roman Republic (6.1)
Rome was growing in power while Greece was in decline.
Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and Remus.
By legend, they were twin sons of the god Mars, and they were abandoned on the Tiber River as infants.
Rome was built on seven rolling hills at a curve on the Tiber River, near the center of the Italian peninsula.
midpoint of the Mediterranean Sea
midway between the Alps and Italy’s southern tip
The history of settlers of the Italian peninsula:
First settlers arrived in prehistoric times.
Latins, Greeks, and Etruscans inhabited the region from 1000 to 500 B.C.
The Latins built the original settlement at Rome and were considered the first Romans.
Rome came into closer contact with Greek civilization because of prosperous Greek colonies along southern Italy and Sicily.
The Etruscans were skilled metalworkers, engineers, and had a system of writing. They influenced Roman civilization a lot.
Romans adopted their alphabet and the use of the arch in architecture.
Around 600 B.C., an Etruscan became king of Rome.
Allowed Rome to grow significantly larger.
The last king of Rome was Tarquin the Proud who was a harsh tyrant.
Romans declared they would never again be ruled by a king, and instead established a republic.
citizens have the right to vote for their leaders
Only free-born male citizens could vote
In the early republic, a few important groups competed for power.
Patricians were wealthy landowners with the majority of the power
Inherited their power and claimed that ancestry gave them the right to make laws.
Plebeians were the commoners who made up the majority of the population
Citizens who had the right to vote but were barred from holding important government positions.
Plebeians were instead allowed to form their own assembly and elect representatives.
A written law code was a victory for the plebeians because it didn’t allow the patrician officials to interpret the law to suit themselves. The 12 tables/tablets that the laws were carved onto were called the Twelve Tables.
The Roman government had the best features of a monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.
Had 2 consuls with limited power who commanded the army/government.
A consul's term was 1 year and then they could not be reelected again for 10 years.
One consul could always veto the other’s decisions.
Had an aristocratic branch called the senate with 300 members from the upper class (plebeians were allowed in later) with power of foreign and domestic policy.
Had assemblies for the democratic side of the government. Assemblies elected tribunes and made laws for the common people.
In a time of crisis, a dictator could be appointed who would have absolute power for 6 months.
Rome valued their military a lot. All citizens who owned land were required to serve in the army. Seekers of certain public offices had to perform ten years of military service.
Military units were organized into legions of 5,000 infantry and some cavalry.
Divided into centuries of 80 men
Roman power grew slowly as they battled for control of the Italian peninsula. Romans dominated central Italy by the fourth century B.C. By 265 B.C. they dominated almost all of Italy.
Some of the conquered areas became full citizens, some areas further from Rome had all the rights of citizenship except the vote, and other groups were Roman allies who had to supply troops for the Roman army.
Rome’s location gave it access to lands around the Mediterranean Sea.
Merchants traded Roman wine and olive oil for many foods, raw materials, and manufactured goods.
Carthage interfered with Roman access o the Mediterranean.
Rome and Carthage went to war 3 times, called the Punic Wars.
Rome won the first war.
The second was began because Hannibal, a military strategist, wanted to avenge Carthage’s earlier defeat.
Assembled 50,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and 60 elephants and led them on a trek from Spain across France and through the Alps, and marched up and down the Italian peninsula for over a decade.
Inflicted many losses on Rome but the Roman allies prevented him from capturing Rome.
The Romans found a military leader to match Hannibal, capped Scipio. His strategy forced Hannibal to return to Carthage, near where the Romans defeated him.
During the third war Rome sieged Carthage, burned the city and sold its 50,000 inhabitants into slavery.
The Roman Empire (6.2)
As Rome expanded its territory, the Roman Republic became unstable and gave way to a dictator-ruled empire.
The lower classes were growing more and more discontent and the military order was breaking down.
Collapse of the Roman Republic
Economic and Social Turmoil
Widening gap between rich and poor
Wealthy landowners controlled large estates
Small farmers lost land and became homeless
Rise in slavery
By 100 B.C., slaves made up one-third of Rome’s population
Slaves displaced free labor, worsening unemployment
Military Breakdown
Soldiers recruited from landless poor
Loyalty shifted from Republic to individual generals
Generals gained power through personal armies
Reform Attempts
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
Proposed land redistribution to help the poor
Met violent deaths due to opposition from the Senate
Rise of Julius Caesar
Formation of the First Triumvirate (60 B.C.)
Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey
Shared control of Rome
Caesar elected consul in 59 B.C.
Military Success in Gaul
Conquered all of Gaul (58–50 B.C.)
Gained loyalty of troops
Increased popularity among Roman citizens
Defiance and Civil War
Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army
Caesar crossed the Rubicon River in 49 B.C.
Defeated Pompey’s forces across multiple regions
Dictatorship and Reforms
Named dictator in 46 B.C., then dictator for life in 44 B.C.
Granted citizenship to many in provinces
Expanded the Senate with loyal supporters
Initiated public works and land reforms
Assassination (March 15, 44 B.C.)
Killed by senators including Brutus and Cassius
Motivated by fear of Caesar’s growing power
Rise of Augustus and the Roman Empire
Second Triumvirate (43 B.C.)
Octavian (Caesar’s adopted son), Mark Antony, Lepidus
Defeated Caesar’s assassins
Eventually dissolved due to rivalry
Octavian Becomes Augustus (27 B.C.)
Defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra
Became Rome’s first emperor
Title “Augustus” means “exalted one”
Maintained republican forms but held absolute power
Pax Romana (27 B.C.–A.D. 180)
Era of peace and prosperity
Stable government and strong economy
Civil service system employed to manage empire
Uniform currency (denarius) facilitated trade
Trade and Economy in the Empire
Agriculture
Primary industry; 90% of population engaged in farming
Trade Networks
Extensive routes across Europe, Asia, and Africa
Goods included grain, olive oil, wine, metals, slaves, wild animals
Roads and Mediterranean Sea enabled efficient transport
Currency
Denarius (silver coin) used throughout the empire
Roman Society and Culture
Social Classes
Rich lived in luxury; poor in crowded tenements
Government provided grain rations to the poor
Slavery
Integral to economy and society
Slaves worked in homes, farms, mines, and gladiator arenas
Rare and unsuccessful rebellions
Religion
Worship of numina (spirits) and Lares (household gods)
Major gods: Jupiter, Juno, Minerva
Emperors worshipped as divine figures
Public Entertainment
Purpose
Distract and control the masses
150 holidays per year with free games and spectacles
Events at the Colosseum
Gladiator fights, animal hunts, mock battles
Thumbs-up meant mercy; thumbs-down meant death
Crowd influence often determined a gladiator’s fate
Cultural Impact
Reflected Roman values of bravery, strength, and discipline
Combined honor with violence and cruelty
The Rise of Christianity (6.3)
Worship of Roman gods previously was impersonal and practiced without much emotion.
Christianity was born as a movement within Judaism. It emphasized a more personal relationship between God and people.
Roman power spread to the home of the Jews around 63 B.C. and the Roman empire took control of the Jewish kingdom in A.D. 6.
Jews believed they would be free again because according to biblical tradition, God had promised that a savior known as the Messiah would arrive and restore the kingdom of the Jews.
20 years after the beginning of Roman rule, many believed that such a savior had arrived.
Around 6 to 4 B.C., a Jew named Jesus was born.
Born in Bethlehem, Judea in Northern Palestine
Jesus grew up in Nazareth and was baptized by John the Baptist.
At about age 30, he began his public ministry.
He preached ideas rooted in Jewish tradition, including the Ten Commandments, but emphasized love, forgiveness, humility, and care for the poor.
His message promised eternal life to those who repented of their sins.
Jesus’ teachings attracted large crowds, especially the poor, because he ignored wealth and status.
His disciples, later called apostles, spread his teachings.
The Gospels became the main record of his life and message.
Around A.D. 29, Jesus visited Jerusalem.
Crowds hailed him as the Messiah, but Jewish priests rejected him, calling his teachings blasphemy.
Roman governor Pontius Pilate accused him of defying Rome’s authority.
Jesus was arrested, sentenced to crucifixion, and executed.
According to the Gospels, three days after his death Jesus rose again.
His followers believed he had triumphed over death and was truly the Messiah.
From this belief, he came to be called Jesus Christ (Christos = “savior”).
Christianity was born as a distinct religion.
The apostles continued spreading Jesus’ teachings despite opposition.
Paul, once hostile to Christians, converted after a vision of Jesus.
He traveled widely, wrote letters (Epistles), and taught that Christianity was open to all people, not just Jews.
Christianity spread across the Roman Empire.
It appealed because it offered inclusivity, hope, a personal relationship with God, and the promise of eternal life.
Despite persecution, including executions and martyrdom, the faith grew steadily.
Jewish revolts against Rome (A.D. 66 and 132) led to destruction of the Temple and the Diaspora (scattering of Jews).
Christianity, however, continued to expand.
By the late 3rd century A.D., Christianity had millions of followers.
Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity with the Edict of Milan (A.D. 313).
By A.D. 325, Christianity was widespread; by A.D. 500, it had spread across Europe, North Africa, and western Asia.
The Church developed a hierarchy.
Local priests served communities, bishops oversaw regions, and the pope (traced to Peter) became the spiritual leader.
The Nicene Creed (A.D. 325) unified Christian beliefs.
Church Fathers shaped doctrine.
Augustine of Hippo (bishop in 396) emphasized God’s grace and sacraments.
In The City of God, he argued that while earthly cities fall, the heavenly city is eternal.
Legacy: Christianity grew from a small Jewish sect into a world religion.
It unified diverse peoples under one faith.
Its teachings, organization, and cultural influence shaped medieval Europe and continue to impact the world today.
The Fall of the Roman Empire (6.4)
Setting the Stage
By the third century A.D., Rome faced major problems from both inside and outside the empire.
Only drastic economic, military, and political reforms could delay collapse.
A Century of Crisis
The reign of Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161–180) marked the end of the Pax Romana.
Later rulers struggled to manage the empire, leading to decline.
Economic Weakness
Trade disrupted by hostile tribes and pirates.
No new sources of gold or silver; government raised taxes.
Coins contained less silver, causing inflation.
Agriculture declined due to overworked soil and war damage.
Food shortages, disease, and population decline followed.
Military and Political Turmoil
Soldiers became less disciplined and loyal, supporting commanders instead of Rome.
Generals fought each other for power.
Government recruited mercenaries, who lacked loyalty.
Citizens lost patriotism and became indifferent to Rome’s fate.
Diocletian’s Reforms (A.D. 284)
Strong army leader who ruled harshly but restored order.
Doubled the size of the army.
Set fixed prices to fight inflation.
Claimed divine descent and used ceremonies to strengthen emperor’s prestige.
Divided the empire into Greek-speaking East and Latin-speaking West.
East was wealthier and included most trade centers.
Retired in A.D. 305; civil war broke out.
Constantine’s Rule
Gained control of the West in A.D. 312 and the East in A.D. 324.
Restored the idea of a single ruler.
Moved the capital to Byzantium in A.D. 330, renamed Constantinople.
Location was strategic for trade and defense.
Shifted power from Rome to the East.
After his death, the empire divided again; East survived, West declined.
Germanic Invasions
Germanic tribes fled into Roman lands to escape the Huns.
In 410, Germans overran Rome and plundered it for three days.
Attila the Hun united the Huns in 444, terrorizing both East and West.
Attacked 70 cities in the East but failed to take Constantinople.
Advanced on Rome in 452 but stopped by famine and disease.
After Attila’s death in 453, Germanic invasions continued.
Fall of the Western Empire
In 476, Romulus Augustulus, the last emperor, was ousted by German forces.
Western Roman Empire ended.
Eastern Empire (Byzantine Empire) survived for 1,000 more years.
Preserved Greek and Roman culture until its fall in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks.
Legacy
Even after the fall of the West, Roman ideas, customs, and institutions influenced Western civilization.
Roman culture continues to shape society today.
Rome and the Roots of Western Civilization (6.5)
Roman Architecture
Practical and influential designs remained popular for centuries.
Inspired later movements like the Roman revival in the U.S. (e.g., Capitol buildings).
Use of arches, domes, and concrete allowed for massive, durable structures.
Roman Roads
Built by the army to connect all parts of the empire.
Made of stone, concrete, and sand.
Many roads lasted into the Middle Ages and some are still used today.
Roman Engineering
Aqueducts transported water to cities and towns.
Engineered with precision and durability.
Example: Roman aqueducts in modern-day France still stand.
Roman Law
Most lasting and widespread Roman contribution.
Early laws focused on protecting Roman citizens.
Later laws emphasized fairness and equality for all.
Influenced by Stoic philosophy — based on reason and practicality.
Key principles:
Equal treatment under the law.
Innocent until proven guilty.
Burden of proof on the accuser.
Punishment only for actions, not thoughts.
Unreasonable laws could be overturned.
Formed the foundation of legal systems in Europe and the U.S.